Articles | Volume 19, issue 3
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-637-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-637-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
How does the explicit treatment of convection alter the precipitation–soil hydrology interaction in the mid-Holocene African humid period?
Leonore Jungandreas
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstraße 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
now at: German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv), Halle, Jena, Leipzig, Germany
Cathy Hohenegger
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstraße 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Martin Claussen
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Bundesstraße 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Center for Earth System Research and Sustainability, Universität Hamburg, Bundesstraße 53, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Related authors
No articles found.
Arim Yoon, Cathy Hohenegger, Jiawei Bao, and Lukas Brunner
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3221, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-3221, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We studied how removing the Amazon rainforest impacts extreme weather by using an advanced global model that resolves convection. Our results show deforestation significantly intensifies short but severe rainfall, leading to more frequent droughts and flooding. Temperatures rise sharply, creating dangerous heat conditions harmful to human health and productivity. Wind speeds drastically increase. These findings provide a stark warning of the effects of continuing deforestation of the Amazon.
Mateo Duque-Villegas, Martin Claussen, Thomas Kleinen, Jürgen Bader, and Christian H. Reick
Clim. Past, 21, 773–794, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-773-2025, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-773-2025, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
We simulate the last glacial cycle with a comprehensive model of the Earth system and investigate vegetation cover change in northern Africa during the last four African Humid Periods (AHPs). We find a common pattern of vegetation change and relate it with climatic factors in order to discuss how vegetation might have evolved during even older AHPs. This scaling relationship we find according to past AHPs fails to account for projected changes in northern Africa under strong greenhouse gas warming.
Hans Segura, Xabier Pedruzo-Bagazgoitia, Philipp Weiss, Sebastian K. Müller, Thomas Rackow, Junhong Lee, Edgar Dolores-Tesillos, Imme Benedict, Matthias Aengenheyster, Razvan Aguridan, Gabriele Arduini, Alexander J. Baker, Jiawei Bao, Swantje Bastin, Eulàlia Baulenas, Tobias Becker, Sebastian Beyer, Hendryk Bockelmann, Nils Brüggemann, Lukas Brunner, Suvarchal K. Cheedela, Sushant Das, Jasper Denissen, Ian Dragaud, Piotr Dziekan, Madeleine Ekblom, Jan Frederik Engels, Monika Esch, Richard Forbes, Claudia Frauen, Lilli Freischem, Diego García-Maroto, Philipp Geier, Paul Gierz, Álvaro González-Cervera, Katherine Grayson, Matthew Griffith, Oliver Gutjahr, Helmuth Haak, Ioan Hadade, Kerstin Haslehner, Shabeh ul Hasson, Jan Hegewald, Lukas Kluft, Aleksei Koldunov, Nikolay Koldunov, Tobias Kölling, Shunya Koseki, Sergey Kosukhin, Josh Kousal, Peter Kuma, Arjun U. Kumar, Rumeng Li, Nicolas Maury, Maximilian Meindl, Sebastian Milinski, Kristian Mogensen, Bimochan Niraula, Jakub Nowak, Divya Sri Praturi, Ulrike Proske, Dian Putrasahan, René Redler, David Santuy, Domokos Sármány, Reiner Schnur, Patrick Scholz, Dmitry Sidorenko, Dorian Spät, Birgit Sützl, Daisuke Takasuka, Adrian Tompkins, Alejandro Uribe, Mirco Valentini, Menno Veerman, Aiko Voigt, Sarah Warnau, Fabian Wachsmann, Marta Wacławczyk, Nils Wedi, Karl-Hermann Wieners, Jonathan Wille, Marius Winkler, Yuting Wu, Florian Ziemen, Janos Zimmermann, Frida A.-M. Bender, Dragana Bojovic, Sandrine Bony, Simona Bordoni, Patrice Brehmer, Marcus Dengler, Emanuel Dutra, Saliou Faye, Erich Fischer, Chiel van Heerwaarden, Cathy Hohenegger, Heikki Järvinen, Markus Jochum, Thomas Jung, Johann H. Jungclaus, Noel S. Keenlyside, Daniel Klocke, Heike Konow, Martina Klose, Szymon Malinowski, Olivia Martius, Thorsten Mauritsen, Juan Pedro Mellado, Theresa Mieslinger, Elsa Mohino, Hanna Pawłowska, Karsten Peters-von Gehlen, Abdoulaye Sarré, Pajam Sobhani, Philip Stier, Lauri Tuppi, Pier Luigi Vidale, Irina Sandu, and Bjorn Stevens
EGUsphere, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-509, https://doi.org/10.5194/egusphere-2025-509, 2025
Short summary
Short summary
The nextGEMS project developed two Earth system models that resolve processes of the order of 10 km, giving more fidelity to the representation of local phenomena, globally. In its fourth cycle, nextGEMS performed simulations with coupled ocean, land, and atmosphere over the 2020–2049 period under the SSP3-7.0 scenario. Here, we provide an overview of nextGEMS, insights into the model development, and the realism of multi-decadal, kilometer-scale simulations.
Pin-Hsin Hu, Christian H. Reick, Reiner Schnur, Axel Kleidon, and Martin Claussen
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-111, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-111, 2024
Revised manuscript under review for GMD
Short summary
Short summary
We introduce the new plant functional diversity model JeDi-BACH, a novel tool that integrates the Jena Diversity Model (JeDi) within the land component of the ICON Earth System Model. JeDi-BACH captures a richer set of plant trait variations based on environmental filtering and functional tradeoffs without a priori knowledge of the vegetation types. JeDi-BACH represents a significant advancement in modeling the complex interactions between plant functional diversity and climate.
Nora Farina Specht, Martin Claussen, and Thomas Kleinen
Clim. Past, 20, 1595–1613, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1595-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1595-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We close the terrestrial water cycle across the Sahara and Sahel by integrating a new endorheic-lake model into a climate model. A factor analysis of mid-Holocene simulations shows that both dynamic lakes and dynamic vegetation individually contribute to a precipitation increase over northern Africa that is collectively greater than that caused by the interaction between lake and vegetation dynamics. Thus, the lake–vegetation interaction causes a relative drying response across the entire Sahel.
Cathy Hohenegger, Peter Korn, Leonidas Linardakis, René Redler, Reiner Schnur, Panagiotis Adamidis, Jiawei Bao, Swantje Bastin, Milad Behravesh, Martin Bergemann, Joachim Biercamp, Hendryk Bockelmann, Renate Brokopf, Nils Brüggemann, Lucas Casaroli, Fatemeh Chegini, George Datseris, Monika Esch, Geet George, Marco Giorgetta, Oliver Gutjahr, Helmuth Haak, Moritz Hanke, Tatiana Ilyina, Thomas Jahns, Johann Jungclaus, Marcel Kern, Daniel Klocke, Lukas Kluft, Tobias Kölling, Luis Kornblueh, Sergey Kosukhin, Clarissa Kroll, Junhong Lee, Thorsten Mauritsen, Carolin Mehlmann, Theresa Mieslinger, Ann Kristin Naumann, Laura Paccini, Angel Peinado, Divya Sri Praturi, Dian Putrasahan, Sebastian Rast, Thomas Riddick, Niklas Roeber, Hauke Schmidt, Uwe Schulzweida, Florian Schütte, Hans Segura, Radomyra Shevchenko, Vikram Singh, Mia Specht, Claudia Christine Stephan, Jin-Song von Storch, Raphaela Vogel, Christian Wengel, Marius Winkler, Florian Ziemen, Jochem Marotzke, and Bjorn Stevens
Geosci. Model Dev., 16, 779–811, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-779-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-16-779-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Models of the Earth system used to understand climate and predict its change typically employ a grid spacing of about 100 km. Yet, many atmospheric and oceanic processes occur on much smaller scales. In this study, we present a new model configuration designed for the simulation of the components of the Earth system and their interactions at kilometer and smaller scales, allowing an explicit representation of the main drivers of the flow of energy and matter by solving the underlying equations.
Mateo Duque-Villegas, Martin Claussen, Victor Brovkin, and Thomas Kleinen
Clim. Past, 18, 1897–1914, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1897-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1897-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Using an Earth system model of intermediate complexity, we quantify contributions of the Earth's orbit, greenhouse gases (GHGs) and ice sheets to the strength of Saharan greening during late Quaternary African humid periods (AHPs). Orbital forcing is found as the dominant factor, having a critical threshold and accounting for most of the changes in the vegetation response. However, results suggest that GHGs may influence the orbital threshold and thus may play a pivotal role for future AHPs.
Bastian Kirsch, Cathy Hohenegger, Daniel Klocke, Rainer Senke, Michael Offermann, and Felix Ament
Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 14, 3531–3548, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3531-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-14-3531-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Conventional observation networks are too coarse to resolve the horizontal structure of kilometer-scale atmospheric processes. We present the FESST@HH field experiment that took place in Hamburg (Germany) during summer 2020 and featured a dense network of 103 custom-built, low-cost weather stations. The data set is capable of providing new insights into the structure of convective cold pools and the nocturnal urban heat island and variations of local temperature fluctuations.
Nora Farina Specht, Martin Claussen, and Thomas Kleinen
Clim. Past, 18, 1035–1046, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1035-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1035-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Palaeoenvironmental records only provide a fragmentary picture of the lake and wetland extent in North Africa during the mid-Holocene. Therefore, we investigate the possible range of mid-Holocene precipitation changes caused by an estimated small and maximum lake extent and a maximum wetland extent. Results show a particularly strong monsoon precipitation response to lakes and wetlands over the Western Sahara and an increased monsoon precipitation when replacing lakes with vegetated wetlands.
Jooyeop Lee, Martin Claussen, Jeongwon Kim, Je-Woo Hong, In-Sun Song, and Jinkyu Hong
Clim. Past, 18, 313–326, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-313-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-313-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
It is still a challenge to simulate the so–called Green Sahara (GS), which was a wet and vegetative Sahara region in the mid–Holocene, using current climate models. Our analysis shows that Holocene greening is simulated better if the amount of soil nitrogen and soil texture is properly modified for the humid and vegetative GS period. Future climate simulation needs to consider consequent changes in soil nitrogen and texture with changes in vegetation cover for proper climate simulations.
Anne Dallmeyer, Martin Claussen, Stephan J. Lorenz, Michael Sigl, Matthew Toohey, and Ulrike Herzschuh
Clim. Past, 17, 2481–2513, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2481-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2481-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Using the comprehensive Earth system model, MPI-ESM1.2, we explore the global Holocene vegetation changes and interpret them in terms of the Holocene climate change. The model results reveal that most of the Holocene vegetation transitions seen outside the high northern latitudes can be attributed to modifications in the intensity of the global summer monsoons.
Leonore Jungandreas, Cathy Hohenegger, and Martin Claussen
Clim. Past, 17, 1665–1684, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1665-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1665-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the impact of explicitly resolving convection on the mid-Holocene West African Monsoon rain belt by employing the ICON climate model in high resolution. While the spatial distribution and intensity of the precipitation are improved by this technique, the monsoon extents further north and the mean summer rainfall is higher in the simulation with parameterized convection.
Jule Radtke, Thorsten Mauritsen, and Cathy Hohenegger
Atmos. Chem. Phys., 21, 3275–3288, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-3275-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-3275-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Shallow trade wind clouds are a key source of uncertainty to projections of the Earth's changing climate. We perform high-resolution simulations of trade cumulus and investigate how the representation and climate feedback of these clouds depend on the specific grid spacing. We find that the cloud feedback is positive when simulated with kilometre but near zero when simulated with hectometre grid spacing. These findings suggest that storm-resolving models may exaggerate the trade cloud feedback.
Cited articles
Bartlein, P. J., Harrison, S., Brewer, S., Connor, S., Davis, B., Gajewski, K., Guiot, J., Harrison-Prentice, T., Henderson, A., Peyron, O., Prentice, I. C., Scholze, M., Seppä, H., Shuman, B., Sugita, S., Thompson, R. S., Viau, A. E., Williams, J., and Wu, H.: Pollen-based continental climate reconstructions at 6 and 21 ka: a global synthesis, Clim. Dynam., 37, 775–802, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-010-0904-1, 2011. a
Bechtold, P., Semane, N., Lopez, P., Chaboureau, J.-P., Beljaars, A., and
Bormann, N.: Representing equilibrium and nonequilibrium convection in
large-scale models, J. Atmos. Sci., 71, 734–753,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0163.1, 2014. a
Braconnot, P., Joussaume, S., Marti, O., and De Noblet, N.: Synergistic
feedbacks from ocean and vegetation on the African monsoon response to
mid-Holocene insolation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2481–2484,
https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GL006047, 1999. a
Braconnot, P., Joussaume, S., De Noblet, N., and Ramstein, G.: Mid-Holocene and last glacial maximum African monsoon changes as simulated within the
paleoclimate modelling intercomparison project, Global Planet. Change, 26, 51–66, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8181(00)00033-3, 2000. a
Braconnot, P., Harrison, S. P., Kageyama, M., Bartlein, P. J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Abe-Ouchi, A., Otto-Bliesner, B., and Zhao, Y.: Evaluation of climate models using palaeoclimatic data, Nat. Clim. Change, 2, 417–424, https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1456, 2012. a, b
Brierley, C. M., Zhao, A., Harrison, S. P., Braconnot, P., Williams, C. J. R., Thornalley, D. J. R., Shi, X., Peterschmitt, J.-Y., Ohgaito, R., Kaufman, D. S., Kageyama, M., Hargreaves, J. C., Erb, M. P., Emile-Geay, J., D'Agostino, R., Chandan, D., Carré, M., Bartlein, P. J., Zheng, W., Zhang, Z., Zhang, Q., Yang, H., Volodin, E. M., Tomas, R. A., Routson, C., Peltier, W. R., Otto-Bliesner, B., Morozova, P. A., McKay, N. P., Lohmann, G., Legrande, A. N., Guo, C., Cao, J., Brady, E., Annan, J. D., and Abe-Ouchi, A.: Large-scale features and evaluation of the PMIP4-CMIP6 midHolocene simulations, Clim. Past, 16, 1847–1872, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-1847-2020, 2020. a
Broström, A., Coe, M., Harrison, S. P., Gallimore, R., Kutzbach, J., Foley, J., Prentice, I., and Behling, P.: Land surface feedbacks and palaeomonsoons in northern Africa, Geophys. Res. Lett., 25, 3615–3618,
https://doi.org/10.1029/98GL02804, 1998. a
Claussen, M. and Gayler, V.: The greening of the Sahara during the
mid-Holocene: results of an interactive atmosphere-biome model, Global Ecol. Biogeogr. Lett., 6, 369–377, https://doi.org/10.2307/2997337, 1997. a, b, c
Claussen, M., Dallmeyer, A., and Bader, J.: Theory and modeling of the African humid period and the green Sahara, in: Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Climate Science, https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228620.013.532, 2017. a
Dallmeyer, A., Claussen, M., Lorenz, S., and Shanahan, T.: The end of the
African humid period as seen by transient comprehensive Earth system model
simulation of the last 8000 years, Clim. Past, 16, 117–120,
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-117-2020, 2020.
a, b, c, d
Dirmeyer, P. A., Cash, B. A., Kinter, J. L., Jung, T., Marx, L., Satoh, M.,
Stan, C., Tomita, H., Towers, P., Wedi, N., Achuthavarier, D., Adams, J. M., Altshuler, E. L., Huang, B., Jin, E. K., and Manganello, J.: Simulating the diurnal cycle of rainfall in global climate models: Resolution versus parameterization, Clim. Dynam., 39, 399–418, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-011-1127-9, 2012. a
Doherty, R., Kutzbach, J., Foley, J., and Pollard, D.: Fully coupled
climate/dynamical vegetation model simulations over Northern Africa during
the mid-Holocene, Clima. Dynam., 16, 561–573, https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820000065, 2000. a, b
Fiedler, S., Crueger, T., D'Agostino, R., Peters, K., Becker, T., Leutwyler,
D., Paccini, L., Burdanowitz, J., Buehler, S. A., Cortes, A. U., Dauhut, T., Dommenget, D., Fraedrich, K., Jungandreas, L., Maher, N., Naumann, A. K., Rugenstein, M., Sakradzija, M., Schmidt, H., Sielmann, F., Stephan, C., Timmreck, C., Zhu, X., and Stevensm, B.: Simulated tropical precipitation assessed across three major phases of the coupled model intercomparison project (CMIP), Mon. Weather Rev., 148, 3653–3680, https://doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-19-0404.1, 2020. a
Gaetani, M., Messori, G., Zhang, Q., Flamant, C., and Pausata, F. S.:
Understanding the mechanisms behind the northward extension of the West
African Monsoon during the Mid-Holocene, J. Climate, 30, 7621–7642,
https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-16-0299.1, 2017. a
Harrison, S. P., Bartlein, P., Izumi, K., Li, G., Annan, J., Hargreaves, J.,
Braconnot, P., and Kageyama, M.: Evaluation of CMIP5 palaeo-simulations to
improve climate projections, Nat. Clim. Change, 5, 735–743,
https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate2649, 2015. a
Hohenegger, C., Brockhaus, P., Bretherton, C. S., and Schär, C.: The soil
moisture–precipitation feedback in simulations with explicit and parameterized convection, J. Climate, 22, 5003–5020, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2604.1, 2009. a
Hohenegger, C., Kornblueh, L., Klocke, D., Becker, T., Cioni, G., Engels, J. F., Schulzweida, U., and Stevens, B.: Climate statistics in global simulations of the atmosphere, from 80 to 2.5 km grid spacing, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II, 98, 73–91, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2020-005, 2020. a
Jolly, D., Prentice, I. C., Bonnefille, R., Ballouche, A., Bengo, M., Brenac,
P., Buchet, G., Burney, D., Cazet, J.-P., Cheddadi, R., Edorh, T., Elenga, H., Elmoutaki, S., Guiot, J., Laarif, F., Lamb, H., Lezine, A.-M., Maley, J., Mbenza, M., Peyron, O., Reille, M., Reynaud-Farrera, I., Riollet, G., Ritchie, J. C., Roche, E., Scott, L., Ssemmanda, I., Straka, H., Umer, M., Van Campo, E., Vilimumbalo, S., Vincens, A., and Waller, M.: Biome reconstruction from pollen and plant macrofossil data for Africa and the Arabian peninsula at 0 and 6000 years, J. Biogeogr., 25, 1007–1027, https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2699.1998.00238.x, 1998. a
Joussaume, S., Taylor, K., Braconnot, P., Mitchell, J., Kutzbach, J., Harrison, S., Prentice, I., Broccoli, A., Abe-Ouchi, A., Bartlein, P. J., Bonfils, C.., Dong, B., Guiot, J., Herterich, K., Hewitt, C. D., Jolly, D., Kim, J. W., Kislov, A., Kitoh, A., Loutre, M. F., Masson, V., McAvaney, B., McFarlane, N., de Noblet, N., Peltier, W. R., Peterschmitt, J. Y., Pollard, D., Rind, D., Royer, J. F., Schlesinger, M. E., Syktus, J., Thompson, S., Valdes, P., Vettoretti, G., Webb, R. S., and Wyputta, U.: Monsoon changes for 6000 years ago: results of 18 simulations from the Paleoclimate Modeling Intercomparison Project (PMIP), Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 859–862, https://doi.org/10.1029/1999GL900126, 1999. a, b
Jungandreas, L.: Scripts and supplementary informations, MPG.PuR [code],
http://hdl.handle.net/21.11116/0000-000A-E8FB-6 (last access: 20 March 2023), 2023a. a
Jungandreas, L.: Data, DKRZ LTA DOCU [data set],
https://doi.org/10.26050/WDCC/ICON-NWP_mH_pd, 2023b. a
Kendon, E., Prein, A., Senior, C., and Stirling, A.: Challenges and outlook for convection-permitting climate modelling, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 379, 20190547, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2019.0547, 2021. a
Krinner, G., Lézine, A. M., Braconnot, P., Sepulchre, P., Ramstein, G.,
Grenier, C., and Gouttevin, I.: A reassessment of lake and wetland feedbacks
on the North African Holocene climate, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L07701, https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL050992, 2012. a
Kutzbach, J. and Otto-Bliesner, B.: The sensitivity of the African-Asian
monsoonal climate to orbital parameter changes for 9000 years BP in a
low-resolution general circulation model, J. Atmos. Sci., 39, 1177–1188,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1982)039<1177:TSOTAA>2.0.CO;2, 1982. a
Kutzbach, J., Bonan, G., Foley, J., and Harrison, S.: Vegetation and soil
feedbacks on the response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing in the
early to middle Holocene, Nature, 384, 623–626, https://doi.org/10.1038/384623a0, 1996. a
Kutzbach, J. E. and Guetter, P. J.: The influence of changing orbital
parameters and surface boundary conditions on climate simulations for the
past 18 000 years, J. Atmos. Sci., 43, 1726–1759,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1986)043<1726:TIOCOP>2.0.CO;2, 1986. a
Kutzbach, J. E. and Liu, Z.: Response of the African monsoon to orbital forcing and ocean feedbacks in the middle Holocene, Science, 278, 440–443,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.278.5337.440, 1997. a, b, c
Levis, S., Bonan, G. B., and Bonfils, C.: Soil feedback drives the mid-Holocene North African monsoon northward in fully coupled CCSM2 simulations with a dynamic vegetation model, Clim. Dynam., 23, 791–802,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-004-0477-y, 2004. a
Nicholson, S. E.: A revised picture of the structure of the “monsoon” and
land ITCZ over West Africa, Clim. Dynam., 32, 1155–1171,
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-008-0514-3, 2009. a
Patricola, C. M. and Cook, K. H.: Dynamics of the West African monsoon under
mid-Holocene precessional forcing: Regional climate model simulations,
J. Climate, 20, 694–716, https://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI4013.1, 2007. a
Peyron, O., Jolly, D., Braconnot, P., Bonnefille, R., Guiot, J., Wirrmann, D., and Chalié, F.: Quantitative reconstructions of annual rainfall in Africa 6000 years ago: Model-data comparison, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 111, D24, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JD007396, 2006. a
Rachmayani, R., Prange, M., and Schulz, M.: North African vegetation–precipitation feedback in early and mid-Holocene climate
simulations with CCSM3-DGVM, Clim. Past, 11, 175–185, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-175-2015, 2015. a
Randall, D., Khairoutdinov, M., Arakawa, A., and Grabowski, W.: Breaking the
cloud parameterization deadlock, B. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 84, 1547–1564,
https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-84-11-1547, 2003. a
Ripley, E., Charney, J., Stone, P. H., and Quirk, W. J.: Drought in the Sahara: Insufficient biogeophysical feedback?, Science, 191, 100–102,
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.191.4222.100, 1976. a
Schär, C., Lüthi, D., Beyerle, U., and Heise, E.: The
soil–precipitation feedback: A process study with a regional climate model,
J. Climate, 12, 722–741, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1999)012<0722:TSPFAP>2.0.CO;2, 1999. a, b
Stephens, G. L., L'Ecuyer, T., Forbes, R., Gettelmen, A., Golaz, J.-C.,
Bodas-Salcedo, A., Suzuki, K., Gabriel, P., and Haynes, J.: Dreary state of
precipitation in global models, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 115, D24211, https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014532, 2010. a
Stevens, B., Acquistapace, C., Hansen, A., Heinze, R., Klinger, C., Klocke, D., Rybka, H., Schubotz, W., Windmiller, J., Adamidis, P., Arka, I., Barlakas, V., Bierkamp, J., Brueck, M., Brune, S., Buehler, S. A., Burkhardt, U., Cioni, G., Costa-Surós, M., Crewell, S., Crueger, T., Deneke, H., Friedrichs, P., Henken, C. C., Hohenegger, C., Jacob, M., Jakub, F., Kalthoff, N., Koehler, M., van Laar, T. W., Li, P., Loehnert, U., Macke, A., Madenach, N., Mayer, B., Nam, C., Naumann, A. K., Peters, K., Poll, S., Quaas, J., Röber, N., Rochetin, N., Scheck, L., Schemann, V., Schnitt, S., Seifert, A., Senf, F., Shapkalijevski, M., Simmer, C., Singh, S., Sourdeval, O., Spickermann, D., Strandgren, J., Tessiot, O., Vercauteren, N., Vial, J., Voigt, A., and Zaengl, G.: The added value of large-eddy and storm-resolving models for simulating clouds and precipitation, J. Meteorol. Soc. Jpn. Ser. II, 98, 395–435, https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2020-021, 2020. a
Street-Perrott, F., Mitchell, J., Marchand, D., and Brunner, J.: Milankovitch
and albedo forcing of the tropical monsoons: a comparison of geological
evidence and numerical simulations for 9000 yBP, Earth Environ. Sci. Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 81, 407–427, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0263593300020897, 1990. a
Texier, D., De Noblet, N., Harrison, S., Haxeltine, A., Jolly, D., Joussaume,
S., Laarif, F., Prentice, I., and Tarasov, P.: Quantifying the role of
biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks in climate change: coupled model simulations
for 6000 years BP and comparison with palaeodata for northern Eurasia and
northern Africa, Clim. Dynam., 13, 865–881, https://doi.org/10.1007/s003820050202, 1997. a
Thorncroft, C. D., Nguyen, H., Zhang, C., and Peyrillé, P.: Annual cycle of the West African monsoon: regional circulations and associated water vapour transport, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 137, 129–147, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.728, 2011. a, b
Tiedtke, M.: A comprehensive mass flux scheme for cumulus parameterization in
large-scale models, Mon. Weather Rev., 117, 1779–1800,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1989)117<1779:ACMFSF>2.0.CO;2, 1989. a
Tierney, J. E., Pausata, F. S., and deMenocal, P. B.: Rainfall regimes of the
Green Sahara, Sci. Adv., 3, e1601503, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1601503, 2017. a
Vamborg, F., Brovkin, V., and Claussen, M.: The effect of a dynamic background albedo scheme on Sahel/Sahara precipitation during the mid-Holocene, Clim. Past, 7, 117–131, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-7-117-2011, 2011. a
Vizy, E. K. and Cook, K. H.: Mesoscale convective systems and nocturnal
rainfall over the West African Sahel: role of the Inter-tropical front,
Clim. Dynam., 50, 587–614, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-017-3628-7, 2018. a
Wu, M.-L. C., Reale, O., Schubert, S. D., Suarez, M. J., Koster, R. D., and
Pegion, P. J.: African easterly jet: Structure and maintenance, J. Climate, 22, 4459–4480, https://doi.org/10.1175/2009JCLI2584.1, 2009.
a, b
Xue, Y. and Shukla, J.: The influence of land surface properties on Sahel
climate. Part 1: desertification, J. Climate, 6, 2232–2245,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1993)006<2232:TIOLSP>2.0.CO;2, 1993. a
Xue, Y. and Shukla, J.: The influence of land surface properties on Sahel
climate. Part II. Afforestation, J. Climate, 9, 3260–3275,
https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1996)009<3260:TIOLSP>2.0.CO;2, 1996. a
Yang, G.-Y. and Slingo, J.: The diurnal cycle in the tropics, Mon. Weather
Rev., 129, 784–801, https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(2001)129<0784:TDCITT>2.0.CO;2,
2001. a
Zängl, G., Reinert, D., Rípodas, P., and Baldauf, M.: The ICON
(ICOsahedral Non-hydrostatic) modelling framework of DWD and MPI-M:
Description of the non-hydrostatic dynamical core, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 141, 563–579, https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.2378, 2015. a, b
Short summary
Increasing the vegetation cover over mid-Holcocene North Africa expands the West African monsoon ∼ 4–5° further north. This northward shift of monsoonal precipitation is caused by interactions of the land surface with large-scale monsoon circulation and the coupling of soil moisture to precipitation. We highlight the importance of considering not only how soil moisture influences precipitation but also how different precipitation characteristics alter the soil hydrology via runoff generation.
Increasing the vegetation cover over mid-Holcocene North Africa expands the West African monsoon...