Articles | Volume 11, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-1563-2015
© Author(s) 2015. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-1563-2015
© Author(s) 2015. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.
Research article
| 
25 Nov 2015
Research article |
| 25 Nov 2015
Transitivity of the climate–vegetation system in a warm climate
U. Port
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
M. Claussen
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Meteorological Institute, University of Hamburg, 20146 Hamburg, Germany
Related authors
Ulrike Port, Martin Claussen, and Victor Brovkin
Earth Syst. Dynam., 7, 535–547, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-7-535-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-7-535-2016, 2016
U. Port, M. Claussen, and V. Brovkin
Clim. Past Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/cpd-11-997-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/cpd-11-997-2015, 2015
Revised manuscript not accepted
Mateo Duque-Villegas, Martin Claussen, Thomas Kleinen, Jürgen Bader, and Christian H. Reick
Clim. Past Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-2024-61, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-2024-61, 2024
Preprint under review for CP
Short summary
Short summary
We simulate the last glacial cycle with a comprehensive Earth system model and investigate vegetation change in North Africa during the last four African humid periods (AHPs). We find a common AHP pattern of vegetation change and relate it to climatic factors to discuss how vegetation might have evolved in much older AHPs. The relationship we found for past AHPs does not hold for projected changes in North Africa under strong greenhouse gas warming.
Pin-Hsin Hu, Christian H. Reick, Reiner Schnur, Axel Kleidon, and Martin Claussen
Geosci. Model Dev. Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-111, https://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-2024-111, 2024
Preprint under review for GMD
Short summary
Short summary
We introduce the new plant functional diversity model JeDi-BACH, a novel tool that integrates the Jena Diversity Model (JeDi) within the land component of the ICON Earth System Model. JeDi-BACH captures a richer set of plant trait variations based on environmental filtering and functional tradeoffs without a priori knowledge of the vegetation types. JeDi-BACH represents a significant advancement in modeling the complex interactions between plant functional diversity and climate.
Nora Farina Specht, Martin Claussen, and Thomas Kleinen
Clim. Past, 20, 1595–1613, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1595-2024, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-20-1595-2024, 2024
Short summary
Short summary
We close the terrestrial water cycle across the Sahara and Sahel by integrating a new endorheic-lake model into a climate model. A factor analysis of mid-Holocene simulations shows that both dynamic lakes and dynamic vegetation individually contribute to a precipitation increase over northern Africa that is collectively greater than that caused by the interaction between lake and vegetation dynamics. Thus, the lake–vegetation interaction causes a relative drying response across the entire Sahel.
Leonore Jungandreas, Cathy Hohenegger, and Martin Claussen
Clim. Past, 19, 637–664, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-637-2023, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-637-2023, 2023
Short summary
Short summary
Increasing the vegetation cover over mid-Holcocene North Africa expands the West African monsoon ∼ 4–5° further north. This northward shift of monsoonal precipitation is caused by interactions of the land surface with large-scale monsoon circulation and the coupling of soil moisture to precipitation. We highlight the importance of considering not only how soil moisture influences precipitation but also how different precipitation characteristics alter the soil hydrology via runoff generation.
Mateo Duque-Villegas, Martin Claussen, Victor Brovkin, and Thomas Kleinen
Clim. Past, 18, 1897–1914, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1897-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1897-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Using an Earth system model of intermediate complexity, we quantify contributions of the Earth's orbit, greenhouse gases (GHGs) and ice sheets to the strength of Saharan greening during late Quaternary African humid periods (AHPs). Orbital forcing is found as the dominant factor, having a critical threshold and accounting for most of the changes in the vegetation response. However, results suggest that GHGs may influence the orbital threshold and thus may play a pivotal role for future AHPs.
Nora Farina Specht, Martin Claussen, and Thomas Kleinen
Clim. Past, 18, 1035–1046, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1035-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-1035-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
Palaeoenvironmental records only provide a fragmentary picture of the lake and wetland extent in North Africa during the mid-Holocene. Therefore, we investigate the possible range of mid-Holocene precipitation changes caused by an estimated small and maximum lake extent and a maximum wetland extent. Results show a particularly strong monsoon precipitation response to lakes and wetlands over the Western Sahara and an increased monsoon precipitation when replacing lakes with vegetated wetlands.
Jooyeop Lee, Martin Claussen, Jeongwon Kim, Je-Woo Hong, In-Sun Song, and Jinkyu Hong
Clim. Past, 18, 313–326, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-313-2022, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-18-313-2022, 2022
Short summary
Short summary
It is still a challenge to simulate the so–called Green Sahara (GS), which was a wet and vegetative Sahara region in the mid–Holocene, using current climate models. Our analysis shows that Holocene greening is simulated better if the amount of soil nitrogen and soil texture is properly modified for the humid and vegetative GS period. Future climate simulation needs to consider consequent changes in soil nitrogen and texture with changes in vegetation cover for proper climate simulations.
Anne Dallmeyer, Martin Claussen, Stephan J. Lorenz, Michael Sigl, Matthew Toohey, and Ulrike Herzschuh
Clim. Past, 17, 2481–2513, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2481-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-2481-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
Using the comprehensive Earth system model, MPI-ESM1.2, we explore the global Holocene vegetation changes and interpret them in terms of the Holocene climate change. The model results reveal that most of the Holocene vegetation transitions seen outside the high northern latitudes can be attributed to modifications in the intensity of the global summer monsoons.
Leonore Jungandreas, Cathy Hohenegger, and Martin Claussen
Clim. Past, 17, 1665–1684, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1665-2021, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-17-1665-2021, 2021
Short summary
Short summary
We investigate the impact of explicitly resolving convection on the mid-Holocene West African Monsoon rain belt by employing the ICON climate model in high resolution. While the spatial distribution and intensity of the precipitation are improved by this technique, the monsoon extents further north and the mean summer rainfall is higher in the simulation with parameterized convection.
Anne Dallmeyer, Martin Claussen, Stephan J. Lorenz, and Timothy Shanahan
Clim. Past, 16, 117–140, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-117-2020, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-16-117-2020, 2020
Short summary
Short summary
We analyse the end of the African humid period (AHP) in a transient Holocene simulation performed with the comprehensive Earth system model MPI-ESM1.2. The model reproduces the time-transgressive end of the AHP evident in proxy data and indicates that changes in moisture can be attributed to the retreat of the summer monsoon and to changes in the extratropical troughs. The spatially varying impact of these systems imposes regionally different responses to the Holocene insolation change.
Victor Brovkin, Stephan Lorenz, Thomas Raddatz, Tatiana Ilyina, Irene Stemmler, Matthew Toohey, and Martin Claussen
Biogeosciences, 16, 2543–2555, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-2543-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-16-2543-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
Mechanisms of atmospheric CO2 growth by 20 ppm from 6000 BCE to the pre-industrial period are still uncertain. We apply the Earth system model MPI-ESM-LR for two transient simulations of the climate–carbon cycle. An additional process, e.g. carbonate accumulation on shelves, is required for consistency with ice-core CO2 data. Our simulations support the hypothesis that the ocean was a source of CO2 until the late Holocene when anthropogenic CO2 sources started to affect atmospheric CO2.
Anne Dallmeyer, Martin Claussen, and Victor Brovkin
Clim. Past, 15, 335–366, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-15-335-2019, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-15-335-2019, 2019
Short summary
Short summary
A simple but powerful method for the biomisation of plant functional type distributions is introduced and tested for six different dynamic global vegetation models based on pre-industrial and palaeo-simulations. The method facilitates the direct comparison between vegetation distributions simulated by different Earth system models and between model results and the pollen-based biome reconstructions. It is therefore a powerful tool for the evaluation of Earth system models.
Uwe Mikolajewicz, Florian Ziemen, Guido Cioni, Martin Claussen, Klaus Fraedrich, Marvin Heidkamp, Cathy Hohenegger, Diego Jimenez de la Cuesta, Marie-Luise Kapsch, Alexander Lemburg, Thorsten Mauritsen, Katharina Meraner, Niklas Röber, Hauke Schmidt, Katharina D. Six, Irene Stemmler, Talia Tamarin-Brodsky, Alexander Winkler, Xiuhua Zhu, and Bjorn Stevens
Earth Syst. Dynam., 9, 1191–1215, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-1191-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-1191-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Model experiments show that changing the sense of Earth's rotation has relatively little impact on the globally and zonally averaged energy budgets but leads to large shifts in continental climates and patterns of precipitation. The retrograde world is greener as the desert area shrinks. Deep water formation shifts from the North Atlantic to the North Pacific with subsequent changes in ocean overturning. Over large areas of the Indian Ocean, cyanobacteria dominate over bulk phytoplankton.
Sabine Egerer, Martin Claussen, and Christian Reick
Clim. Past, 14, 1051–1066, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-14-1051-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-14-1051-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We find a rapid increase in simulated dust deposition between 6 and
4 ka BP that is fairly consistent with an abrupt change in dust deposition that was observed in marine sediment records at around 5 ka BP. This rapid change is caused by a rapid increase in simulated dust emissions in the western Sahara due to a fast decline in vegetation cover and a locally strong reduction of lake area. Our study identifies spatial and temporal heterogeneity in the transition of the North African landscape.
Sirisha Kalidindi, Christian H. Reick, Thomas Raddatz, and Martin Claussen
Earth Syst. Dynam., 9, 739–756, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-739-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-739-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Using climate simulations, we investigate the role of water recycling in shaping the climate of low-obliquity Earth-like terra-planets. By such a mechanism feeding water back from the extra-tropics to the tropics, the planet can assume two drastically different climate states differing by more than 35 K in global temperature. We describe the bifurcation between the two states occurring upon changes in surface albedo and argue that the bistability hints at a wider habitable zone for such planets.
Markus Adloff, Christian H. Reick, and Martin Claussen
Earth Syst. Dynam., 9, 413–425, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-413-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-9-413-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
Computer simulations show that during an ice age a strong atmospheric CO2 increase would have resulted in stronger carbon uptake of the continents than today. Causes are the larger potential of glacial vegetation to increase its photosynthetic efficiency under increasing CO2 and the smaller amount of carbon in extratropical soils during an ice age that can be released under greenhouse warming. Hence, for different climates the Earth system is differently sensitive to carbon cycle perturbations.
Vivienne P. Groner, Thomas Raddatz, Christian H. Reick, and Martin Claussen
Biogeosciences, 15, 1947–1968, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-1947-2018, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-15-1947-2018, 2018
Short summary
Short summary
We show that plant functional diversity significantly affects climate–vegetation interaction and the climate–vegetation system stability in response to external forcing using a series of coupled land–atmosphere simulation. Our findings raise the question of how realistically Earth system models can actually represent climate–vegetation interaction, considering the incomplete representation of plant functional diversity in the current generation of land surface models.
Anne Dallmeyer, Martin Claussen, Jian Ni, Xianyong Cao, Yongbo Wang, Nils Fischer, Madlene Pfeiffer, Liya Jin, Vyacheslav Khon, Sebastian Wagner, Kerstin Haberkorn, and Ulrike Herzschuh
Clim. Past, 13, 107–134, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-13-107-2017, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-13-107-2017, 2017
Short summary
Short summary
The vegetation distribution in eastern Asia is supposed to be very sensitive to climate change. Since proxy records are scarce, hitherto a mechanistic understanding of the past spatio-temporal climate–vegetation relationship is lacking. To assess the Holocene vegetation change, we forced the diagnostic biome model BIOME4 with climate anomalies of different transient climate simulations.
Alexander Lemburg, Martin Claussen, and Felix Ament
Clim. Past Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-2016-68, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-2016-68, 2016
Manuscript not accepted for further review
Short summary
Short summary
The deforestation of Easter Island several hundred years ago might have influenced its local near-surface climate. With a series of numerical model experiments we investigate the impact of deforestation on precipitation and near-surface climate. We find that a deforested Easter Island appears to be significantly less resistant to drought than a forested island and thus, deforestation has probably exacerbated the effects of past climate drought spells on Easter Island's socio-ecological systems.
Ulrike Port, Martin Claussen, and Victor Brovkin
Earth Syst. Dynam., 7, 535–547, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-7-535-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-7-535-2016, 2016
Sabine Egerer, Martin Claussen, Christian Reick, and Tanja Stanelle
Clim. Past, 12, 1009–1027, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-1009-2016, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-12-1009-2016, 2016
Short summary
Short summary
We demonstrate for the first time the direct link between dust accumulation in marine sediment cores and Saharan land surface by simulating the mid-Holocene and pre-industrial dust cycle as a function of Saharan land surface cover and atmosphere-ocean conditions using the coupled atmosphere-aerosol model ECHAM6-HAM2.1. Mid-Holocene surface characteristics, including vegetation cover and lake surface area, are derived from proxy data and simulations.
T. Brücher, M. Claussen, and T. Raddatz
Earth Syst. Dynam., 6, 769–780, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-6-769-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-6-769-2015, 2015
Short summary
Short summary
A major link between climate and humans in northern Africa, and the Sahel in particular, is land use. We assess possible feedbacks between the type of land use and harvest intensity and climate by analysing a series of idealized GCM experiments using the MPI-ESM. Our study suggests marginal feedback between land use changes and climate changes triggered by strong greenhouse gas emissions.
V. P. Groner, M. Claussen, and C. Reick
Clim. Past, 11, 1361–1374, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-1361-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-1361-2015, 2015
U. Port, M. Claussen, and V. Brovkin
Clim. Past Discuss., https://doi.org/10.5194/cpd-11-997-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/cpd-11-997-2015, 2015
Revised manuscript not accepted
A. Dallmeyer, M. Claussen, N. Fischer, K. Haberkorn, S. Wagner, M. Pfeiffer, L. Jin, V. Khon, Y. Wang, and U. Herzschuh
Clim. Past, 11, 305–326, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-305-2015, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-305-2015, 2015
F. S. E. Vamborg, V. Brovkin, and M. Claussen
Earth Syst. Dynam., 5, 89–101, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-5-89-2014, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-5-89-2014, 2014
M. Claussen, K. Selent, V. Brovkin, T. Raddatz, and V. Gayler
Biogeosciences, 10, 3593–3604, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-3593-2013, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-10-3593-2013, 2013
Cited articles
Bathiany, S., Claussen, M., , and Fraedrich, K.: Implications of climate variability for the detection of multiple equilibria and for rapid transitions in the atmosphere-vegetation system, Clim. Dynam., 38, 1775–1790, 2012.
Bathiany, S., Claussen, M., and Fraedrich, K. F.: Detecting hotspots of atmosphere-vegetation interaction via slowing down – Part 1: A stochastic approach, Earth Syst. Dynam., 4, 63–78, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-4-63-2013, 2013a.
Bathiany, S., Claussen, M., and K. Fraedrich, K.: Detecting hotspots of atmosphere-vegetation interaction via slowing down – Part 2: Application to a global climate model, Earth Syst. Dynam., 4, 79–93, https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-4-79-2013, 2013b.
Beerling, D. and Royer, D.: Convergent Cenozoic CO2 history, Nat. Geosci., 4, 418–420, 2011.
Bice, K. L. and Marotzke, J.: Numerical evidence against reversed thermohaline circulation in the warm Paleocene/Eocene ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 11529–11542, 2001.
Bijl, P. K.: Early Palaeogene temperature evolution of the southwest Pacific Ocean, Nature, 461, 776–779, 2009.
Bouchenak-Khelladi, Y., Verboom, G. A., Savolainen, V., and Hodkinson, T. R.: Biogeography of the grasses (Poaceae): a phylogenetic approach to reveal evolutionary history in geographical space and geological time, Botan. J. Linn. Soc., 162, 543–557, 2010.
Brovkin, V., Claussen, M., Petoukhov, V., and Ganopolski, A.: On the stability of the atmosphere-vegetation system in the Sahara/Sahel region, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 103, 31613–31624, 1998.
Brovkin, V., Raddatz, T., and Reick, C. H.: Global biogeophysical interactions between forest and climate, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L07405, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL037543, 2009.
Cerling, T., Wang, Y., and Quade, J.: Expansion of C4 ecosystems as an indicator of global ecological change in the late Miocene, Nature, 361, 344–345, 1993.
Claussen, M.: On coupling global biome models with climate models, Clim. Res., 4, 203–221, 1994.
Claussen, M.: Modeling bio-geophysical feedback in the African and Indian monsoon region, Clim. Dynam., 13, 247–257, 1997.
Claussen, M.: On multiple solutions of the atmosphere-vegetation system in present-day climate, Glob. Change Biol., 4, 549–559, 1998.
Claussen, M. and Gayler, V.: The Greening of the Sahara during the Mid-Holocene: Results of an Interactive Atmosphere-Biome Model, Glob. Ecol. Biogeogr. Lett., 6, 369–377, 1997.
Claussen, M., Kubatzki, C., Brovkin, V., Ganopolski, A., Hoelzmann, P., and Pachur, H.-J.: Simulation of an abrupt change in Saharan vegetation in the Mid-Holocene, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26, 2037–2040, 1999.
Cook, K. H.: Generation of the African Easterly Jet and Its Role in Determining West African Precipitation, J. Clim., 12, 1165–1184, 1999.
Dekker, S. C., de Boer, H. J., Brovkin, V., Fraedrich, K., Wassen, M. J., and Rietkerk, M.: Biogeophysical feedbacks trigger shifts in the modelled vegetation-atmosphere system at multiple scales, Biogeosciences, 7, 1237–1245, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-7-1237-2010, 2010.
Eberle, J. J. and Greenwood, D. R.: Life at the top of the greenhouse Eocene world-A review of the Eocene flora and vertebrate fauna from Canada's High Arctic, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 124, 3–23, 2012.
Harrington, G. J., Eberle, J., Le-Page, B. A., Dawson, M., and Hutchison, J. H.: Arctic plant diversity in the Early Eocene greenhouse, Proc. Roy. Soc. B, 279, 1515–1521, 2012.
Heinemann, M., Jungclaus, J. H., and Marotzke, J.: Warm Paleocene/Eocene climate as simulated in ECHAM5/MPI-OM, Clim. Past, 5, 785–802, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-5-785-2009, 2009.
Huber, M. and Caballero, R.: The early Eocene equable climate problem revisited, Clim. Past, 7, 603–633, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-7-603-2011, 2011.
Ilyina, T., Six, K. D., Segschneider, J., Maier-Reimer, E., Li, H., and Nunez-Riboni, I.: Global ocean biogeochemistry model HAMOCC: Model architecture and performance as component of the MPI-Earth System Model in different CMIP5 experimental realizations., J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 5, 287–315, 2013.
Janis, C. M.: Tertiary mammal evolution in the context of changing climates, vegetation, and tectonic events, Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst., 24, 467–500, 1993.
Jungclaus, J. H., Fischer, N., Haak, H., Lohmann, K., Marotzke, J., Matei, D., Mikolajewicz, U., Notz, D., and von Storch, J. S.: Characteristics of the ocean simulations in the Max Planck Institute Ocean Model (MPIOM) the ocean component of the MPI-Earth system model, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 5, 422–446, 2013.
Kubatzki, C. and Claussen, M.: Simulation of the global bio-geophysical interactions during the Last Glacial Maximum, Clim. Dynam., 14, 461–471, 1998.
Loptson, C. A., Lunt, D. J., and Francis, J. E.: Investigating vegetation-climate feedbacks during the early Eocene, Clim. Past, 10, 419–436, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-10-419-2014, 2014.
Lorenz, E.: Climatic Determinism, Meteor. Monogr., 8, 1–3, 1968.
Lunt, D. J., Jones, T., Heinemann, M., Huber, M., LeGrande, A., Winguth, A., Loptson, C., Marotzke, J., Roberts, C. D., Tindall, J., Valdes, P., and Winguth, C.: A model-data comparison for a multi-model ensemble of early Eocene atmosphere-ocean simulations: EoMIP, Clim. Past, 8, 1717–1736, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-8-1717-2012, 2012.
Oyama, M. D. and Nobre, C. A.: A new climate-vegetation equilibrium state for tropical South America, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 2199, https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL018600, 2003.
Pearson, P., van Dongen, B., Nicholas, C., Pancost, R., and Schouten, S.: Stable warm tropical climate through the Eocene Epoch, Geology, 35, 211–214, 2007.
Pross, J., Contreras, L., Bijl, P. K., Greenwood, D. R., Bohaty, S. M., Schouten, S., Bendle, J. A., Röhl, U., Tauxe, L., Ian Raine, J., Huck, C. E., van de Flierdt, T., Jamieson, S. S. R., Stickley, C. E., van de Schootbrugge, B., Escutia, C., Brinkhuis, H., and Program, I. O. D.: Persistent near-tropical warmth on the Antarctic continent during the early Eocene epoch, Nature, 488, 73–77, 2012.
Quan, C., Liu, Y., and Utescher, T.: Eocene monsoon prevalence over China: A paleobotanical perspective, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 365, 302–311, 2012.
Rachmayani, R., Prange, M., and Schulz, M.: North African vegetation-precipitation feedback in early and mid-Holocene climate simulations with CCSM3-DGVM, Clim. Past, 11, 175–185, https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-11-175-2015, 2015.
Reick, C. H., Raddatz, T., Brovkin, V., and Gayler, V.: Representation of natural and anthropogenic land cover change in MPI-ESM, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 5, 459–482, 2013.
Renssen, H., Goosse, H., and Fichefet, T.: On the non-linear response of the ocean thermohaline circulation to global deforestation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1061, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL016155, 2003.
Sluijs, A., Schouten, S., Pagani, M., Woltering, M., Brinkhuis, H., Sinninghe Damste, J. S., Dickens, G. R., Huber, M., Reichart, G., Stein, R., Matthiessen, J., Lourens, L. J., Pedentchouk, N., Backman, J., Moran, K., and the Expedition 302 Scientists: Subtropical Arctic Ocean temperatures during the Palaeocene/Eocene thermal maximum, Nature, 441, 610–613, 2006.
Stevens, B., Giorgetta, M., Esch, M., Mauritsen, T., Crueger, T., Rast, S., Salzmann, M., Schmidt, H., Bader, J., Block, K., Brokopf, R., Fast, I., Kinne, S., Kornblueh, L., Lohmann, U., Pincus, R., Reichler, T., and Roeckner, E.: Atmospheric component of the MPI-M Earth System Model: ECHAM6, J. Adv. Model. Earth Syst., 5, 146–172, 2013.
Utescher, T. and Mosbrugger, V.: Eocene vegetation patterns reconstructed from plant diversity – A global perspective, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 247, 243–271, 2007.
Wang, D., Lu, S., Han, S., Sun, X., and Quan, C.: Eocene prevalence of monsoon-like climate over eastern China reflected by hydrological dynamics, J. Asian Earth Sci., 62, 776–787, 2013.
Wang, G. and Eltahir, E.: Biosphere-atmosphere interactions over West Africa. II: Multiple climate equilibria, Quarterly J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 126, 1261–1280, 2000.
Willis, K. and McElwain, J.: The elvolution of plants, Oxford University Press, USA, 2002.
Wolfe, J.: Distribution of major vegetation types during the Tertiary, in: The carbon cycle and atmospheric CO2: natural variations Archean to present, edited by: Sundquist E. T. and Broecker W. S., American Geophysical Union, Washington/DC, 357–375, 1985.
Zachos, J., Berza, J., and Wise, S.: Early Oligocene ice-sheet expansion on Antarctica – Stable isotope and sedimentological evidence from Kerguelen Plateau southern Indian-Ocean, Geology, 20, 569–573, 1992.
Zachos, J., Pagani, M., Sloan, L., Thomas, E., and Billups, K.: Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present, Science, 292, 686–693, 2001.
Zeng, N. and Neelin, D. J.: The role of vegetation-climate interaction and interannual variability in shaping the African savanna, J. Climate, 13, 2665–2670, 2000.
