Articles | Volume 19, issue 11
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-2157-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-19-2157-2023
© Author(s) 2023. This work is distributed under
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Unraveling the complexities of the Last Glacial Maximum climate: the role of individual boundary conditions and forcings
Xiaoxu Shi
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
Martin Werner
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
Hu Yang
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
Roberta D'Agostino
Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg, Germany
Italian National Research Council, Insitute of Atmospheric and Climate Sciences, via per Monteroni Km 1.2, 73100 Lecce, Italy
Jiping Liu
School of Atmospheric Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Zhuhai, China
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China
Chaoyuan Yang
Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Zhuhai, China
Gerrit Lohmann
Alfred Wegener Institute, Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research, Bremerhaven, Germany
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Cited
12 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Climate‐Dependency of Impact of Increased Carbon Dioxide on African Monsoon Rainfall: Insights From Model Simulations X. Shi et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024GL112717
- Unravelling the tree cover dynamics over the last 20 000 years on the Northern Hemisphere A. Dallmeyer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-22-1125-2026
- Glacial chronology and climate implications since the Penultimate Glacial Cycle in the Upper Garonne Basin, Central Pyrenees M. Fernandes et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42990-025-00181-7
- Changes in Atmospheric Dynamics Over Dansgaard‐Oeschger Climate Oscillations Around 40 ka and Their Impact on Europe K. Stadelmaier et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JD040247
- Hydroclimate Evolution Along Chile Over the Last 20 000 Years: insights from Leaf-Wax Hydrogen Isotope Records C. Läuchli et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-2083-2025
- Seasonal sea ice characterized the glacial Arctic-Atlantic gateway over the past 750,000 years J. Knies et al. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu7681
- From Tarim River to Lop Nur Salt Lake: Evaluating fluvial source-to-sink system change in a context of millennial-scale climate change J. Luo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2025.109604
- North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) A. Zhao et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-22-689-2026
- Paleoclimate changes and the impacts of atmospheric circulation on the Tibetan Plateau since the Last Glacial Maximum: review and perspective focusing on lake sediments M. Paryal et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-025-00383-x
- Global variability in LGM cooling amongst paleoclimate datasets affects biome reconstructions in mountains E. Rentier et al. https://doi.org/10.21425/fob.18.135871
- CO2 and summer insolation as drivers for the Mid-Pleistocene Transition M. Scherrenberg et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-1061-2025
- The relative role of direct orbital forcing versus CO2 and ice feedbacks on Quaternary climate C. Williams et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-70750-3
12 citations as recorded by crossref.
- Climate‐Dependency of Impact of Increased Carbon Dioxide on African Monsoon Rainfall: Insights From Model Simulations X. Shi et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2024GL112717
- Unravelling the tree cover dynamics over the last 20 000 years on the Northern Hemisphere A. Dallmeyer et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-22-1125-2026
- Glacial chronology and climate implications since the Penultimate Glacial Cycle in the Upper Garonne Basin, Central Pyrenees M. Fernandes et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42990-025-00181-7
- Changes in Atmospheric Dynamics Over Dansgaard‐Oeschger Climate Oscillations Around 40 ka and Their Impact on Europe K. Stadelmaier et al. https://doi.org/10.1029/2023JD040247
- Hydroclimate Evolution Along Chile Over the Last 20 000 Years: insights from Leaf-Wax Hydrogen Isotope Records C. Läuchli et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-2083-2025
- Seasonal sea ice characterized the glacial Arctic-Atlantic gateway over the past 750,000 years J. Knies et al. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adu7681
- From Tarim River to Lop Nur Salt Lake: Evaluating fluvial source-to-sink system change in a context of millennial-scale climate change J. Luo et al. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2025.109604
- North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) in the Paleoclimate Modelling Intercomparison Project (PMIP) A. Zhao et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-22-689-2026
- Paleoclimate changes and the impacts of atmospheric circulation on the Tibetan Plateau since the Last Glacial Maximum: review and perspective focusing on lake sediments M. Paryal et al. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10933-025-00383-x
- Global variability in LGM cooling amongst paleoclimate datasets affects biome reconstructions in mountains E. Rentier et al. https://doi.org/10.21425/fob.18.135871
- CO2 and summer insolation as drivers for the Mid-Pleistocene Transition M. Scherrenberg et al. https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-21-1061-2025
- The relative role of direct orbital forcing versus CO2 and ice feedbacks on Quaternary climate C. Williams et al. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-026-70750-3
Saved (final revised paper)
Latest update: 17 Jul 2026
Short summary
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) marks the most recent extremely cold and dry time period of our planet. Using AWI-ESM, we quantify the relative importance of Earth's orbit, greenhouse gases (GHG) and ice sheets (IS) in determining the LGM climate. Our results suggest that both GHG and IS play important roles in shaping the LGM temperature. Continental ice sheets exert a major control on precipitation, atmospheric dynamics, and the intensity of El Niño–Southern Oscillation.
The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) marks the most recent extremely cold and dry time period of our...