CP Climate of the Past CP Clim. Past 1814-9332 Copernicus Publications Göttingen, Germany 10.5194/cp-6-645-2010 A synthesis of marine sediment core &delta;<sup>13</sup>C data over the last 150 000 years Oliver K. I. C. 2 1 Hoogakker B. A. A. 3 Crowhurst S. 3 Henderson G. M. 4 Rickaby R. E. M. 4 Edwards N. R. 2 Elderfield H. 3 School of Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre Southampton, University of Southampton, European Way, Southampton SO14 3ZH, UK Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, UK Department of Earth Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 2EQ, UK Department of Earth Sciences, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PR, UK 08 10 2010 6 5 645 673 Copyright: © 2010 K. I. C. Oliver et al. 2010 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ This article is available from https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/6/645/2010/cp-6-645-2010.html The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/6/645/2010/cp-6-645-2010.pdf

The isotopic composition of carbon, &delta;<sup>13</sup>C, in seawater is used in reconstructions of ocean circulation, marine productivity, air-sea gas exchange, and biosphere carbon storage. Here, a synthesis of &delta;<sup>13</sup>C measurements taken from foraminifera in marine sediment cores over the last 150 000 years is presented. The dataset comprises previously published and unpublished data from benthic and planktonic records throughout the global ocean. Data are placed on a common &delta;<sup>18</sup>O age scale suitable for examining orbital timescale variability but not millennial events, which are removed by a 10 ka filter. Error estimates account for the resolution and scatter of the original data, and uncertainty in the relationship between &delta;<sup>13</sup>C of calcite and of dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) in seawater. This will assist comparison with &delta;<sup>13</sup>C of DIC output from models, which can be further improved using model outputs such as temperature, DIC concentration, and alkalinity to improve estimates of fractionation during calcite formation. <br><br> High global deep ocean &delta;<sup>13</sup>C, indicating isotopically heavy carbon, is obtained during Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1, 3, 5a, c and e, and low &delta;<sup>13</sup>C during MIS 2, 4 and 6, which are temperature minima, with larger amplitude variability in the Atlantic Ocean than the Pacific Ocean. This is likely to result from changes in biosphere carbon storage, modulated by changes in ocean circulation, productivity, and air-sea gas exchange. The North Atlantic vertical &delta;<sup>13</sup>C gradient is greater during temperature minima than temperature maxima, attributed to changes in the spatial extent of Atlantic source waters. There are insufficient data from shallower than 2500 m to obtain a coherent pattern in other ocean basins. The data synthesis indicates that basin-scale &delta;<sup>13</sup>C during the last interglacial (MIS 5e) is not clearly distinguishable from the Holocene (MIS 1) or from MIS 5a and 5c, despite significant differences in ice volume and atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration during these intervals. Similarly, MIS 6 is only distinguishable from MIS 2 or 4 due to globally lower &delta;<sup>13</sup>C values both in benthic and planktonic data. This result is obtained despite individual records showing differences between these intervals, indicating that care must be used in interpreting large scale signals from a small number of records.

 References Abrantes, F., Baas, J., Haflidason, H., Rasmussen, T.&nbsp;L., Klitgaard, D., Loncaric, N., and Gaspar, L.: Sediment fluxes along the northeastern {E}uropean {M}argin: inferring hydrological changes between 20 and 8 kyr, Mar. Geol., 152, 7–23, 1998. Anderson, D.&nbsp;M., Prell, W.&nbsp;L., and Barratt, N.&nbsp;J.: Estimates of sea surface temperature in the Coral Sea at the last glacial maximum, Paleoceanogr., 4, 615–627, 1989. Arz, H.&nbsp;W., Pätzold, J., and Wefer, G.: The deglacial history of the western tropical {A}tlantic as inferred from high resolution stable isotope records off northeastern {B}razil, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 167, 105–117, 1999. Bassinot, F.&nbsp;C., Beaufort, L., Vincent, E., Labeyrie, L., Rostek, F., Müller, P.&nbsp;J., Quidelleur, X., and Lancelot, Y.: Coarse fraction fluctuations in pelagic carbonate sediments from the tropical {I}ndian {O}cean: A 1500-kyr record of carbonate dissolution, Paleoceanogr., 9, 579–600, 1994. Bauch, H., Erlenkeuser, H., Spielhagen, R.&nbsp;F., Struck, U., Matthiessen, J., Thiede, J., and Heinemeier, J.: A multiproxy reconstruction of the evolution of deep and surface waters in the subarctic {N}ordic seas over the last 30 000 years, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 20, 659–678, 2001. Bemis, B.&nbsp;E., Spero, H.&nbsp;J., Lea, D.&nbsp;W., and Bijma, J.: Temperature influence on the carbon isotopic composition of <i>{G</i>lobigerina bulloides} and <i>{O</i>rbulina universa} (planktonic foraminifera), Mar. Micropaleontol., 38, 213–228, 2000. Berger, W.&nbsp;H., Killingley, J.&nbsp;S., and Vincent, E.: Stable isotopes in deep-sea carbonates: box core ERDC-92 west equatorial {P}acific, Oceanol. Acta, 1, 203–216, 1978. Beveridge, N.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;S., Elderfield, H., and Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: Deep thermohaline circulation in the low-latitude {A}tlantic during the last glacial, Paleoceanogr., 10, 643–660, 1995. Bickert, T. and Mackensen, A.: Last {G}lacial to {H}olocene Changes in {S}outh {A}tlantic deep water circulation, in: The {S}outh {A}tlantic in the late {Q}uaternary: {R}econstruction of material budgets and current systems, edited by Wefer, G., Mulitza, S., and Ratmeyer, V., 671–695, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo, 2003. Bickert, T. and Wefer, G.: Late Q}uaternary deep water circulation in the {S}outh {A}tlantic: {R}econstruction from carbonate dissolution and benthic stable isotopes, in: \cite{Weferbook2, 599–620, 1996. Bickert, T. and Wefer, G.: South {A}tlantic and benthic foraminifer δ<sup>13</sup>{C}-deviations: Implications for reconstructing the {L}ate {Q}uaternary deep-water circulation, Deep-Sea Res. I, 46, 437–452, 1999. Bickert, T., Curry, W B., and Wefer, G.: Late Pliocene to Holocene (2.6&nash;0 Ma) western equatorial Atlantic deep-water circulation: Inferences from stable isotopes, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 154, 239–253, 1997. Boyle, E.: Vertical oceanic nutrient fractionation and glacial/interglacial CO<sub>2</sub> cycles, Nature, 331, 55–56, 1988. Broecker, W.&nbsp;S.: Ocean chemistry during glacial time, Geochem. Cosmochim. Acta, 46, 1689–1705, 1982{a}. Broecker, W.&nbsp;S.: Tracers in the Sea, Eldigio Press, New York, 690 pp., 1982{b}. Brovkin, V., Ganapolski, A., Archer, D., and Rahmstorf, S.: Lowering of glacial atmospheric {CO}<sub>2</sub> in response to changes in oceanic circulation and marine biogeochemistry, Paleoceanogr., 22, PA4202, https://doi.org/10.1029/2006PA001380, 2007. Cannariato, K.&nbsp;G. and Ravelo, A.&nbsp;C.: Pliocene-{P}leistocene evolution of eastern tropical {P}acific surface water circulation and thermocline depth, Paleoceanogr., 12, 805–820, 1997. Carter, L., Manighetti, B., Ganssen, G., and Northcote, L.: Southwest Pacific modulation of abrupt climate change during the Antarctic Cold Reversal-Younger Dryas, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 260, 284–298, 2008. Chapman, M.&nbsp;R. and Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: Global ice-volume fluctuations, {N}orth {A}tlantic ice-rafting events, and deep-ocean circulation changes between 130 and 70 ka, Geology, 27, 795–798, 1999. Cortijo, E.: Stable isotope analysis on sediment core SU90-39, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.106761, 2003. Crowley, T.&nbsp;J.: Ice age terrestrial carbon changes revisited, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 9, 377–389, 1995. Crucifix, M., Betts, R.&nbsp;A., and Hewitt, C.&nbsp;D.: Pre-industrial-potential and Last Glacial Maximum global vegetation simulated with a coupled climate-biosphere model: Diagnosis of bioclimatic relationships, Global Planet. Change, 45, 295–312, 2005. Curry, W.&nbsp;B. and Oppo, D.&nbsp;W.: Synchronous, high-frequency oscillations in tropical sea surface temperatures and {N}orth {A}tlantic {D}eep {W}ater productivity during the last glacial cycle, Paleoceanogr., 12, 1–14, 1997. Curry, W.&nbsp;B. and Oppo, D.&nbsp;W.: Glacial water mass geometry and the distribution of δ<sup>13</sup>{C} of ${§igma}${CO}2 in the western {A}tlantic {O}cean, Paleoceanogr., 20, PA1017, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001021, 2005. Curry, W.&nbsp;B., Duplessy, J.-C., Labeyrie, L., and Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: Changes in the distribution of d13{C} of deep water ${§igma}${CO}2 between the last glaciation and the {H}olocene, Paleoceanogr., 3, 317–341, 1988. Dorschel, B., Hebbeln, D., Rüggeberg, A., Dullo, W.-C., and Freiwald, A.: Growth and Erosion of a Cold-Water Coral Covered Carbonate Mound in the Northeast Atlantic during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 233, 33–44, 2005. Duplessy, J.-C.: Quaternary paleoceanography: unpublished stable isotope records. IGBP {PAGES/W}orld {D}ata {C}enter for {P}aleoclimatology Data Contribution Series #1996-035., NOAA/NGDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder, Colorado, USA, 1996. Duplessy, J.&nbsp;C. and Shackleton, N.: Response of global deep-water circulation to {E}arth's climatic change 135,000-107,000 years ago, Nature, 316, 500–507, 1985. Duplessy, J.&nbsp;C., Bé, A.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;H., and Blanc, P.&nbsp;L.: Oxygen and carbon isotopic composition and biogeographic distribution of planktonic foraminifera in the I}ndian {O}cean, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 33, 9–46, 1981{a. Duplessy, J.&nbsp;C., Blanc, P.&nbsp;L., and Bé, A.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;H.: Oxygen-18 Enrichment of Planktonic Foraminifera Due to Gametogenic Calcification Below the Euphotic Zone, Science, 213, 1247–1250, 1981{b}. Duplessy, J.&nbsp;C., Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J., Matthews, R.&nbsp;K., Prell, W., Ruddiman, W.&nbsp;F., Caralp, M., and Hendy, C.&nbsp;H.: 13C record of benthic foraminifera in the last interglacial ocean: Implications for the carbon cycle and the global deep water circulation, Quat. Res., 21, 225–243, 1984. Duplessy, J.&nbsp;C., Labeyrie, L., and Blanc, P.&nbsp;L.: Norwegian Sea Deep Water variations over the last climatic cycle: Paleo-oceanographical implications, in: Long and short term variability of climate, edited by Wanner, H. and Siegenthaler, U., 83–116, Springer, Heidelberg, 1988{a}. Duplessy, J.&nbsp;C., Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J., Fairbanks, R.&nbsp;G., Labeyrie, L., Oppo, D., and kallel, N.: Deepwater source variations during the last climatic cycle and their impact on the global deepwater circulation, Paleoceanogr., 3, 343–360, 1988{b}. Duplessy, J.-C., Labeyrie, L., Arnold, M., Paterne, M., Duprat, J., and van Weering, T.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;E.: Changes in surface salinity of the North Atlantic ocean during the last deglaciation, Nature, 358, 485–488, 1992. Dürkop, A., Hale, W., Mulitza, S., Pätzold, J., and Wefer, G.: Late Quaternary variations of sea surface salinity and temperature in the western tropical Atlantic: Evidence from d18O of Globigerinoides sacculifer, Paleoceanogr., 12, 764–772, 1997. Elderfield, H., Vautravers, M., and Cooper, M.: The relationship between shell size and Mg/Ca, Sr/Ca, d18O and d13C of species of planktonic foraminifera, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 3, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GC000194, 2001GC000194, 2002. Enting, I.: On the use of smoothing splines to filter {CO}<sub>2</sub> data, J.&nbsp;Geophys. Res., 92, 10977–10984, 1987. %Fischer, G. and Wefer, G., eds.: Use of Proxies in Paleoceanography: Examples % from the South Atlantic, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York % Tokyo, \blackbox\bf pages or doinumber with article no!, 1999. Fischer, G., Kalberer, M., Donner, B., and Wefer, G.: Stable isotopes of pteropod shells as recorders of sub-surface water conditions: C}omparison to the record of <i>{G</i>.&nbsp;ruber and to measured values, in: Use of Proxies in Paleoceanography, edited by: Fischer, G. and Wefer, G., Examples from the South Atlantic, Springer-Verlag, 191–206, 1999. François, L.&nbsp;M., Goddéris, Y., Warnant, P., Ramstein, G., de Noblet, N., and Lorenz, S.: Carbon stocks and isotopic budgets of the terrestrial biosphere at mid-{H}olocene and last glacial maximum times, Chem. Geol., 159, 163–189, 1999. Freudenthal, T., Meggers, H., Henderiks, J., Kuhlmann, H., Moreno, A., and Wefer, G.: Upwelling intensity and filament activity off {M}orocco during the last 250,000 years, Deep Sea Res. II, 49, 3655–3674, 2002. Gorbarenko, S.&nbsp;A. and Southon, J.&nbsp;R.: Detailed Japan Sea paleoceanography during last 25Kyr}: constraints from {AMS dating and d18O of planktonic foraminifera, Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 156, 177–193, 2000. Govin, A., Michel, E., Labeyrie, L., Waelbroeck, C., Dewilde, F., and Jansen, E.: Evidence for northward expansion of {A}ntarctic {B}ottom {W}ater mass in the {S}outhern {O}cean during the last glacial inception, Paleoceanogr., 14, PA1202, https://doi.org/10.1029/2008PA001603, 2009. Hale, W. and Pflaumann, U.: Sea-surface Temperature Estimations using a Modern Analog Technique with Foraminiferal Assemblages from {W}estern {A}tlantic {Q}uaternary Sediments, in: Use of Proxies in Paleoceanography, edited by: Fischer, G. and Wefer, G., Examples from the South Atlantic, Springer-Verlag, 69–90, 1999. Hodell, D.&nbsp;A., Venz, K.&nbsp;A., Charles, C.&nbsp;D., and Ninnemann, U.&nbsp;S.: Pleistocene vertical carbon isotope and carbonate gradients in the {S}outh {A}tlantic sector of the {S}outhern {O}cean, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 4, https://doi.org/10.1029/2002GC000367, 2003. Holbourn, A.&nbsp;E., Kuhnt, W., and James, N.: Late Pleistocene bryozoan reef mounds of the Great Australian Bight: isotope stratigraphy and benthic foraminiferal record, Paleoceanogr., 17, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001PA000643, 2002. Hoogakker, B.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;Rohling, E.&nbsp;J., Palmer, M.&nbsp;R., Tyrrell, T., and Rothwell, R.&nbsp;G.: Underlying causes for long-term global ocean δ<sup>13</sup>{C} fluctuations over the last 1.20 {M}yr, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 248, 15–29, 2006. Hoogakker, B.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;A., Elderfield, H., Oliver, K.&nbsp;I.&nbsp;C., and Crowhurst, S.: Benthic foraminiferal isotope offsets over the last glacial-interglacial cycle, Paleoceanogr., in press, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009PA001870, 2010. Howard, W.&nbsp;R. and Prell, W.&nbsp;L.: Late Quaternary carbonate production and preservation in the {Southern Ocean}: implications for oceanic and atmospheric carbon cycling, Paleoceanogr., 9, 453–482, 1994. Hüls, M.: Stable isotope analysis on sediment core M35003-4, PANGAEA, 29, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.55754, 1999. Imbrie, J., McIntyre, A., and Mix, A.&nbsp;C.: Composite stable isotope data (adjusted) for sediment core RC12-294 (specmap.002), PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.52117, 1997. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A.: Stable isotope analysis of foraminifera from sediment core SO82_5-2, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.201812, 2004. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope data of sediment cores GIK23419-8, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.112916, 2003{a}. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope data of sediment cores GIK23414-9, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.112911, 2003{b}. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope data of sediment cores GIK23415-9, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.112912, 2003{c}. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope data of sediment cores GIK23418-8, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.112915, 2003{d}. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope data of sediment cores GIK23417-1, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.112914, 2003{e}. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope analysis of foraminifera from sediment cores GIK17049-6, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.112908, 2004{a}. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope data of core GIK23416-4, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.136423, 2004{b}. Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A., Kroon, D., Ganssen, G., Peeters, F., and Ganeshram, R.: Enhanced Arabian Sea intermediate water flow during glacial North Atlantic cold phases, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 280, 220–228, 2009. Kawamura, H., Holbourn, A.&nbsp;E., and Kuhnt, W.: Climate variability and land-ocean interactions in the Indo Pacific Warm Pool}: A 460-ka palynological and organic geochemical record from the {Timor Sea, Mar. Micropaleontol., 59, 1–14, 2006. Kawamura, K., Parrenin, F., Lisiecki, L., Uemura, R., Vimeux, F., Severinghaus, P., Hutterli, M.&nbsp;A., Nakazawa, T., Aoki, S., Jouzel, J., Raymo, M.&nbsp;E., Matsumoto, K., Nakata, H., Motoyama, H., Fujita, S., Goto-Azuma, K., Fujii, Y., and Watanabe, O.: Northern {H}emisphere forcing of climatic cycles in {A}ntarctica over the past 360,000 years, Nature, 448, 912–917, 2007. Keigwin, L.&nbsp;D.: Radiocarbon and stable isotope constraints on {L}ast {G}lacial {M}aximum and {Y}ounger {D}ryas ventilation in the western {N}orth {A}tlantic, Paleoceanogr., 19, PA4012, https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001029, 2004. Kohfeld, K.&nbsp;E., Anderson, R.&nbsp;F., and Lynch-Stieglitz, J.: Carbon isotopic disequilibrium in polar planktonic foraminifera and its impact on modern and {L}ast {G}lacial {M}aximum reconstructions, Paleoceanogr., 15, 53–64, 2000. Kroopnick, P.: The distribution of <sup>13</sup>{C} of {TCO}<sub>2</sub> in the world oceans, Deep Sea Res., 32, 57–84, 1985. Labeyrie, L.: Quaternary paleoceanography: unpublished stable isotope records. IGBP {PAGES/W}orld {D}ata {C}enter for {P}aleoclimatology Data Contribution Series #1996-036, NOAA/NGDC Paleoclimatology Program, Boulder, Colorado, USA, 1996. Labeyrie, L.: Stable isotope analysis on foraminifera from sediment core MD88-770, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.52728, 1998. Labeyrie, L., Vidal, L., Cortijo, E., Paterne, M., Arnold, M., Duplessy, J.-C., Vautravers, M., Labracherie, M., Duprat, J., Turon, J.&nbsp;L., Grousset, F., and Van Weering, T.: Surface and deep hydrology of the {N}orthern {A}tlantic {O}cean during the last 150000 years, Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. London, B, 348, 255–264, 1995. Labeyrie, L.&nbsp;D., Waelbroeck, C., Cortijo, E., Michel, E., and Duplessy, J.-C.: Changes in deep water hydrology during the Last Deglaciation, C. R. Geoscience, 337, 919–927, 2005. Lea, D.&nbsp;W., Pak, D.&nbsp;K., and Spero, H.&nbsp;J.: Climate impact of late Quaternary, equatorial Pacific sea surface temperature variations, Science, 289, 1719–1724, 2000. Lowry, R.&nbsp;K., Machin, P., and Cramer, R.&nbsp;N.: BOFS {N}orth A}tlantic Data Set. {O}ceanographic data collected during the {N}orth Atlantic cruises of the {NERC {B}iogeochemical O}cean {F}lux {S}tudy (1989–1991): a {UK contribution of JGOFS, Natural Environmental Research Council, British Oceanographic Data Centre, Merseyside, UK, 1994. Lynch-Stieglitz, J., Curry, W., and Oppo, D.: Meridional overturning circulation in the {S}outh {A}tlantic at the last glacial maximum, Geochem. Geophys. Geosyst., 7, https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GC001226, 2006. Lynch-Stieglitz, J., Adkins, J.&nbsp;F., Curry, W.&nbsp;B., Dokken, T., Hall, I.&nbsp;R., Herguera, J.&nbsp;C., Hirschi, J.&nbsp;J.-M., Ivanova, E., Kissell, C., Marchal, O., Marchitto, T.&nbsp;M., McCave, I.&nbsp;N., McManus, J.&nbsp;F., Mulitza, S., Ninnemann, U.&nbsp;S., Yu, E.-F., and Zahn, R.: Atlantic overturning circulation during the last glacial maximum, Science, 316, 66–69, 2007. Mackensen, A., Hubberten, H.&nbsp;W., Bickert, T., Fischer, G., and Fütterer, D.&nbsp;K.: δ<sup>13</sup>{C} in benthic foraminiferal tests of <i>{F</i>ontbotia wuellerstorfi} ({S}chwager) relative to δ<sup>13</sup>{C} of dissolved inorganic carbon in {S}outhern {O}cean deep water: implications for glacial ocean circulation models, Paleoceanogr., 8, 587–610, 1993. Mackensen, A., Grobe, H., Hubberten, H.&nbsp;W., and Kuhn, G.: Benthic foraminiferal assemblages and the {d13C}-signal in the {A}tlantic sector of the {S}outhern {O}cean: Glacial-to-interglacial contrasts, in: Carbon cycling in the glacial ocean: Constraints on the ocean's role in global change, edited by: Zahn, R., Kaminski, M., Labeyrie, L., and Pedersen, T., NATO ASI series, Springer, Berlin, I 17, 105–144, 1994. Mackensen, A., Rudolph, M., and Kuhn, G.: Late {P}leistocene deep-water circulation in the subantarctic eastern {A}tlantic, Global Planet Change, 30, 197–229, 2001. Marchitto, T.&nbsp;M. and Broecker, W.&nbsp;S.: Deep water mass geometry in the glacial A}tlantic {O}cean: {A review of constraints from the paleonutrient proxy {C}d/{C}a, Geochem. Geophys. Geosys., 7, 10.1029/2006GC001323, 2006. MARGO Project Members: Constraints on the magnitude and patterns of ocean cooling at the {L}ast {G}lacial {M}aximum, Nature Geosci., 2, 127–132, 2009. Martinson, D.&nbsp;G., Pisias, N.&nbsp;G., Hays, J.&nbsp;D., Imbrie, J.&nbsp;D., Moore, T.&nbsp;C., and Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: Age Dating and the orbital theory of the ice ages: development of a high-resolution 0 to 300,000-year chronostratigraphy, Quaternary Res., 27, 1–29, 1987. Matsumoto, K. and Lynch-Stieglitz, J.: Similar glacial and {H}olocene deep water circulation inferred from southeast {P}acific benthic foraminiferal carbon isotope composition, Paleoceanogr., 14, 149–163, 1999. McCave, I.&nbsp;N., Carter, L., and Hall, I.&nbsp;R.: Glacial-interglacial changes in water mass structure and flow in the SW Pacific, Quaternay Sci. Rev., 27, 1886–1908, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.07.010, 2008. McConnaughey, T.&nbsp;A., Burdett, J., Whelan, J.&nbsp;F., and Paull, C.&nbsp;K.: Carbon isotopes in biological carbonates: respiration and photosynthesis, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 62, 611–622, 1997. McIntyre, A., Ruddiman, W.&nbsp;F., karlin, K., and Mix, A.&nbsp;C.: Surface water response of the Equatorial Atlantic Ocean to orbital forcing, Paleoceanogr., 4, 19–55, 1989. Mix, A.&nbsp;C., Pisias, N.&nbsp;G., Zahn, R., Rugh, W., Lopez, C., and Nelson, K.: Carbon 13 in Pacific deep and intermediate waters, 0-370 ka: implications for ocean circulation and Pleistocene CO2, Paleoceanogr., 6, 205–226, 1991. Mix, A.&nbsp;C., Bard, E., and Schneider, R.: Environmental processes of the ice age: land, oceans, glaciers (EPILOG), Quaternary Sci. Rev., 20, 627–657, 2001. Mollenhauer, G., Schneider, R.&nbsp;R., Müller, P.&nbsp;J., Spiess, V., and Wefer, G.: Glacial/interglacial variability in the {B}enguela upwelling system: Spatial distribution and budgets of organic carbon accumulation, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 16, https://doi.org/10.1029/2001GB001488, 2002. Morley, J.&nbsp;J., Heusser, L.&nbsp;E., and Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: Late Pleistocene/Holocene radiolarian and pollen records from sediments in the sea of Okhotsk, Paleoceanogr., 6, 121–131, 1991. Mulitza, S.: Stable isotopes of sediment core GeoB1523-2, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.54618, 1998. N\o{}rgaard-Pedersen, N., Spielhagen, R.&nbsp;F., Thiede, J., and kassens, H.: Central {A}rctic surface ocean environment during the past 80,000 years, Paleoceanogr., 13, 193–204, 1998. Oppo, D.&nbsp;W. and Fairbanks, F.&nbsp;G.: Variability in the deep and intermediate water circulation of the Atlantic Ocean during the past 25000 years: Northern Hemisphere modulation of the Southern Ocean, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 86, 1–15, 1987. Oppo, D.&nbsp;W. and Fairbanks, R.&nbsp;G.: Carbon isotopic comparison of tropical surface water during the past 22,000 year, Paleoceanogr., 4, 333–351, 1989. Oppo, D.&nbsp;W. and Lehmann, S.&nbsp;J.: Suborbital timescale variability of {N}orth {A}tlantic {D}eep {W}ater during the past 200,000 years, Paleoceanogr., 10, 901–910, 1995. Oppo, D.&nbsp;W., Fairbanks, R.&nbsp;G., Gordon, A.&nbsp;L., and Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: Late P}leistocene {S}outhern {O}cean {d13C variability, Paleoceanogr., 5, 43–54, 1990. Oppo, D.&nbsp;W., McManus, J.&nbsp;F., and Cullen, J.&nbsp;L.: Palaeo-oceanography: Deepwater variability in the Holocene epoch, Nature, 422, 277, 2003. Pahnke, K., Zahn, R., Elderfield, H., and Schulz, M.: 340,000-Year centennial-scale marine record of southern hemisphere climatic oscillation, Science, 301, 948–952, 2003. Patrick, A. and Thunell, R.&nbsp;C.: Tropical Pacific sea surface temperatures and upper water column thermal structure during the last glacial maximum, Paleoceanogr., 12, 649–657, 1997. Peng, C.&nbsp;H., Guiot, J., and Van&nbsp;Campo, E.: Estimating changes in terrestrial vegetation and carbon storage: using paleoecological data and models, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 17, 719–735, 1998. Pierre, C., Saliege, J.&nbsp;F., Urrutiaguer, M.&nbsp;J., and Giraudeau, J.: Stable isotope record of the last 500 k.y. at {S}ite 1087 ({S}outhern {C}ape {B}asin), Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 175, 2001. Prell, W.&nbsp;L., Hutson, W.&nbsp;H., Williams, D.&nbsp;F., Bé, A.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;H., Geitzenauer, K., and Molfino, B.: Surface circulation of the I}ndian {O}cean during the last glacial maximum, approximately 18,000 yr {B.P., Quaternary Res., 14, 309–336, 1980. Rau, A., Roger, J., Lutjeharms, J., Giraudeau, J., Lee-Thorp, J., Chen, M.-T., and Waelbroeck, C.: A 450-kyr record of hydrological conditions on the western {A}gulhas {B}ank {S}lope, south of {A}frica, Marine Geol., 180, 183–201, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0025–3227(01)00213–4, 2002. Richter, T.: Stable isotope data of sediment core GEOFAR KF09, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.66316, 2001. Rickaby, R.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;M. and Elderfield, H.: Planktonic foraminiferal {Cd/Ca}: Paleonutrients or paleotemperature?, Paleoceanogr., 14, 293–303, 1999. Rickaby, R.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;M., Elderfield, H., Roberts, N., Hillenbrand, C.-D., and Mackensen, A.: Evidence for elevated alkalinity in the glacial Southern Ocean, Paleoceanogr., in press, 2009. Ridgwell, A., Hargreaves, J. C., Edwards, N. R., Annan, J. D., Lenton, T. M., Marsh, R., Yool, A., and Watson, A.: Marine geochemical data assimilation in an efficient Earth System Model of global biogeochemical cycling, Biogeosciences, 4, 87–104, https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-4-87-2007, 2007. Ruddiman, W.&nbsp;F. and {CLIMAP Project Members}: Stable isotope data of the 120 k time slice, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.51932, 1997. Rüggeberg, A., Dorschel, B., and Dullo, W-C.,&nbsp;Hebbeln, D.: Stable isotope ratios of benthic foraminifera from sediment core GeoB6719-1, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.134555, 2005. Russon, T., Elliot, M., Kissel, C., Cabioch, G., De Deckker, P., and Corrège, T.: Middle-late Pleistocene deep water circulation in the southwest subtropical Pacific, Paleoceanogr., 24, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009PA001755, 2009. Sarnthein, M. and Voelker, A.: Stable isotope analysis on sediment core GIK23071-3, PANGAEA, 9, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.58000, 2001. Sarnthein, M., Winn, K., Jung, S.&nbsp;J.&nbsp;A., Duplessy, J.-C., Labeyrie, L., Erlenkeuser, H., and Ganssen, G.&nbsp;M.: Changes in east {A}tlantic deepwater circulation over the last 30,000 years: Eight time slice reconstructions, Paleoceanography, 9, 209–267, 1994. Schmiedl, G. and Mackensen, A.: Late {Q}uaternary paleoproductivity and deep water circulation in the eastern {S}outh {A}ltantic {O}cean: Evidence from benthic foraminifera, Palaeogeog., Palaeoclim., Palaeoecol., 130, 43–80, 1997. Schmiedl, G. and Mackensen, A.: Stable oxygen isotope records of different benthic foraminiferal species of core GeoB3004-1 from the western Arabian Sea, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.548185, 2006. Schulz, H., von Rad, U., and Erlenkeuser, H.: Correlation between {A}rabian {S}ea and {G}reenland climate oscillations of the past 110,000 years, Nature, 393, 54–57, 1998. Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: Carbon-13 in {U}vigerina: tropical rainforest history and the equatorial {P}acific carbonate dissolution cycles, in: The fate of fossil fuel {CO}2 in the oceans, edited by Anderson, N.&nbsp;R. and Malahoff, A., 401–423, Plenum Press, 1977. Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J. and Hall, M.&nbsp;A.: Oxygen and carbon isotope stratigraphy of Deep Sea Drilling Project Hole 552{A}: Plio-{P}leistocene glacial history, Initial Rep. of the Deep Sea Drill. Proj., 81, 599–610, 1984. Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J., Hall, M.&nbsp;A., Line, J., and Cang, S.: Carbon isotope data in core V19-30 confirm reduced carbon dioxide concentration in the ice age atmosphere, Nature, 306, 319–322, 1983. Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J., Le, J., Mix, A., and Hall, M.&nbsp;A.: Carbon isotope records from Pacific surface waters and atmospheric carbon dioxide, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 11, 387–400, 1992. Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J., Hall, M.&nbsp;A., and Pate, D.: Pliocene stable isotope stratigraphy of Site 846, Proc. Ocean Drill. Program Sci. Results, 138, 337–355, 1995. Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J., Hall, M.&nbsp;A., and Vincent, E.: Phase relationships between millennial-scale events 64,000–24,000 years ago, Paleoceanogr., 15, 565–569, https://doi.org/10.1029/2000PA000513, 2000. Sikes, E.&nbsp;L. and Keigwin, L.&nbsp;D.: Equatorial A}tlantic sea surface temperature for the last 30 kyr: A comparison of {Uk37, delO18 and foraminiferal assemblage temperature estimates, Paleoceanogr., 9, 31–45, 1994. Silverman, B.&nbsp;W.: Aspects of the spline smoothing approach to non-parametric regression curve fitting, J. Royal Stat. Soc. Ser. B, 47, 1–52, 1985. Sirocko, F.: Sedimentology on core IOE105KK, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.77634, 2002. Sirocko, F., Sarnthein, M., Erlenkeuser, H., Lange, H., Arnold, M., and Duplessy, J.-C.: Century-Scale events in monsoonal climate over the past 24,000 years, Nature, 364, 322–324, 1993. Sirocko, F., Garbe-Schönberg, D., and Devey, C.&nbsp;W.: Processes controlling trace element geochemistry of {A}rabian {S}ea sediments during the last 25,000 years, Global Planet. Change, 26, 217–303, 2000. Skinner, L.&nbsp;C. and Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J.: An {A}tlantic lead over {P}acific deep-water change across {T}ermination {I}: implications for the application of the marine isotope stage stratigraphy, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 24, 571–580, 2005. Slowey, N.&nbsp;C. and Curry, W.&nbsp;B.: Glacial-interglacial differences in circulation and carbon cycling within the upper western {A}tlantic, Paleoceanogr., 10, 715–732, 1995. Spero, H.&nbsp;J. and Lea, D.&nbsp;W.: Intraspecific stable isotope variability in the planktonic foraminifera <i>{G</i>lobigerinoides sacculifer}: results from laboratory experiments, Mar. Micropaleontol., 22, 221–234, 1993. Spero, H.&nbsp;J. and Lea, D.&nbsp;W.: Experimental determination of stable isotope variability in <i>{G</i>lobigerina bulloides}: Implications for paleoceanographuc reconstructions, Mar. Micropaleontol., 28, 231–246, 1996. Spero, H.&nbsp;J., Bijma, J., Lea, D.&nbsp;W., and Bemis, B.&nbsp;E.: Effect of seawater carbonate concentration on foraminiferal carbon and oxygen isotopes, Nature, 390, 497–500, 1997. Thunell, R.&nbsp;C., Qingmin, M., Calvert, S.&nbsp;E., and Pedersen, T.&nbsp;F.: Glacial-Holocene biogenic sedimentation Patterns in the South China Sea}: productivity variations and surface water {pCO2, Paleoceanogr., 7, 143–162, 1992. Tian, J., Wang, P.&nbsp;X., Chen, X.&nbsp;R., and Li, Q.&nbsp;Y.: Astronomically tuned Plio-Pleistocene benthic d18O records from South China Sea and Atlantic-Pacific comparison, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 203, 1015–1029, 2002. Venz, K.&nbsp;A., Hodell, D.&nbsp;A., Stanton, C., and Warnke, D.&nbsp;A.: A 1.0 M}yr record of glacial {N}orth {A}tlantic intermediate water variability from {ODP site 982 in the northeast {A}tlantic, Paleoceanogr., 14, 42–52, 1999. Voelker, A.: Stable isotopes on Cibicidoides pachyderma of sediment core MD99-2339, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.465028, 2006. Weaver, P.&nbsp;P.&nbsp;E., Carter, L., and Neil., H.&nbsp;L.: Response of surface water masses and circulation to late Quaternary climate change east of New Zealand, Paleoceanogr., 13, 70–83, 1998. Wefer, G., Berger, W H., Bickert, T., Donner, B., Fischer, G., Kemle-von Mücke, S., Pätzold, J., Meinecke, G., Müller, P J., Mulitza, S., Niebler, H.-S., Schmidt, H., Schneider, R., and Segl, M.: Late Quaternary surface circulation of the South Atlantic: The stable isotope record and implications for heat transport and productivity, in: \citeWeferbook2, 461–502, 1996a. Wefer, G., Berger, W.&nbsp;H., Siedler, G., and Webb, D., eds.: The S}outh {A}tlantic in the late {Q}uaternary: Present and Past Circulation, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1996{b. Weinelt, M. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope analysis on sediment core GIK11944-2, PANGAEA, 29, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.97 104, 2003. Zabel, M., Bickert, T., Dittert, L., and Haese, R.&nbsp;R.: Significance of the sedimentary Al:Ti ratio as an indicator for variations in the circulation patterns of the equatorial {N}orth {A}tlantic, Paleoceanogr., 14, 789–799, 1999. Zahn, R., Winn, K., and Sarnthein, M.: Benthic foraminiferal d13{C} and accumulation rates of organic carbon: {U}vigerina peregrina group and {C}ibicidoides wuellerstorfi, Paleoceanogr., 1, 27–42, 1986. Zahn-Knoll, R. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope analysis on sediment core GIK15669-1, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.106214, 2003{a}. Zahn-Knoll, R. and Sarnthein, M.: Stable isotope analysis on sediment core GIK15637-1, PANGAEA, https://doi.org/10.1594/PANGAEA.106213, 2003{b}. Zhao, M., Beveridge, N.&nbsp;A.&nbsp;S., Shackleton, N.&nbsp;J., Sarnthein, M., and Eglinton, G.: Molecular stratigraphy of cores off northwest {A}frica: Sea surface temperature history over the last 80 ka, Paleoceanogr., 10, 661–675, 1995.