References

Climate of the Past

Clim. Past

1814-9332

Copernicus Publications

Göttingen, Germany

10.5194/cp-10-887-2014

Temperature reconstruction from 10 to 120 kyr b2k from the NGRIP ice core

Kindler

¹ Guillevic

https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8128-7247

² ³ Baumgartner

¹ Schwander

¹ Landais

² Leuenberger

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4299-6793

Climate and Environmental Physics, Physics Institute and Oeschger Centre for Climate Change Research, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland

Institut Pierre-Simon Laplace/Laboratoire des Sciences du Climat et de l'Environnement, Gif-sur-Yvette, France

Centre for Ice and Climate, Niels Bohr Institute, Universtity of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark

30 04 2014

10 2 887 902

2014

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

This article is available from https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/10/887/2014/cp-10-887-2014.html

The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/10/887/2014/cp-10-887-2014.pdf

In order to reconstruct the temperature of the North Greenland Ice Core Project (NGRIP) site, new measurements of δ15N have been performed covering the time period from the beginning of the Holocene to Dansgaard–Oeschger (DO) event 8. Together with previously measured and mostly published δ15N data, we present for the first time a NGRIP temperature reconstruction for the whole last glacial period from 10 to 120 kyr b2k (thousand years before 2000 AD) including every DO event based on δ15N isotope measurements combined with a firn densification and heat diffusion model. The detected temperature rises at the onset of DO events range from 5 °C (DO 25) up to 16.5 °C (DO 11) with an uncertainty of ±3 °C. To bring measured and modelled data into agreement, we had to reduce the accumulation rate given by the NGRIP ss09sea06bm timescale in some periods by 30 to 35%, especially during the last glacial maximum. A comparison between reconstructed temperature and δ18Oice data confirms that the isotopic composition of the stadial was strongly influenced by seasonality. We evidence an anticorrelation between the variations of the δ18Oice sensitivity to temperature (referred to as α) and obliquity in agreement with a simple Rayleigh distillation model. Finally, we suggest that α might be influenced by the Northern Hemisphere ice sheet volume.

References 1

Andersen, K. K., Svensson, A., Johnsen, S. J., Rasmussen, S. O., Bigler, M., Röthlisberger, R., Ruth, U., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Steffensen, J. P., Dahl-Jensen, D., Vinther, B. M., and Clausen, H. B.: The Greenland Ice Core Chronology 2005, 15–42 ka, Part 1: constructing the time scale, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 3246–3257, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.08.002">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.08.002</a>, 2006.

Berger, A. and Loutre, M.: Insolation Values for the Climate of the last 10 Million Years, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 10, 297–317, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(91)90033-Q">https://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(91)90033-Q</a>, 1991.

Bintanja, R., van de Wal, R., and Oerlemans, J.: Modelled atmospheric temperatures and global sea levels over the past million years, Nature, 437, 125–128, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature03975">https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03975</a>, 2005.

Blunier, T. and Brook, E.: Timing of millennial-scale climate change in Antarctica and Greenland during the last glacial period, Science, 291, 109–112, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.291.5501.109">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.291.5501.109</a>, 2001.

Bond, G., Broecher, W., Johnsen, S. J., MacManus, J., Laberie, L., Jouzel, J., and Bonani, G.: Correlations between climate records from North Atlantic sediments and Greenland ice, Nature, 365, 143–147, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/365143a0">https://doi.org/10.1038/365143a0</a>, 1993.

Broecker, W. S.: Abrupt climate change: causal constraints provided by the paleoclimate record, Earth-Sci. Rev., 51, 137–154, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00019-2">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(00)00019-2</a>, 2000.

Broecker, W. S., Bond, G., Klas, M., Bonani, G., and Wolfli, W.: A salt oscillator in the glacial Atlantic? 1. The concept, Paleoceanography, 5, 469–477, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/PA005i004p00469">https://doi.org/10.1029/PA005i004p00469</a>, 1990.

Bromwich, D., Toracinta, E., Wei, H., Oglesby, R., Fastook, J., and Hughes, T.: Polar MM5 simulations of the winter climate of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at the LGM, J. Climate, 17, 3415–3433, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<3415:PMSOTW>2.0.CO;2">https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2004)017<3415:PMSOTW>2.0.CO;2</a>, 2004.

Buizert, C., Martinerie, P., Petrenko, V. V., Severinghaus, J. P., Trudinger, C. M., Witrant, E., Rosen, J. L., Orsi, A. J., Rubino, M., Etheridge, D. M., Steele, L. P., Hogan, C., Laube, J. C., Sturges, W. T., Levchenko, V. A., Smith, A. M., Levin, I., Conway, T. J., Dlugokencky, E. J., Lang, P. M., Kawamura, K., Jenk, T. M., White, J. W. C., Sowers, T., Schwander, J., and Blunier, T.: Gas transport in firn: multiple-tracer characterisation and model intercomparison for NEEM, Northern Greenland, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 4259–4277, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-4259-2012">https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-12-4259-2012</a>, 2012.

Capron, E., Landais, A., Chappellaz, J., Schilt, A., Buiron, D., Dahl-Jensen, D., Johnsen, S. J., Jouzel, J., Lemieux-Dudon, B., Loulergue, L., Leuenberger, M., Masson-Delmotte, V., Meyer, H., Oerter, H., and Stenni, B.: Millennial and sub-millennial scale climatic variations recorded in polar ice cores over the last glacial period, Clim. Past, 6, 345–365, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-345-2010">https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-345-2010</a>, 2010a.

Capron, E., Landais, A., Lemieux-Dudon, B., Schilt, A., Masson-Delmotte, V., Buiron, D., Chappellaz, J., Dahl-Jensen, D., Johnsen, S., Leuenberger, M., Loulergue, L., and Oerter, H.: Synchronising EDML and NorthGRIP ice cores using δ18O of atmospheric oxygen (δ18Oatm) and CH4 measurements over MIS5 (80–123 kyr), Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 222–234, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.07.014">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.07.014</a>, 2010b.

Capron, E., Landais, A., Chappellaz, J., Buiron, D., Fischer, H., Johnsen, S. J., Jouzel, J., Leuenberger, M., Masson-Delmotte, V., and Stocker, T. F.: A global picture of the first abrupt climatic event occurring during the last glacial inception, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052656">https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052656</a>, 2012.

Chiang, J. and Bitz, C.: Influence of high latitude ice cover on the marine Intertropical Convergence Zone, Clim. Dynam., 25, 477–496, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-005-0040-5">https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-005-0040-5</a>, 2005.

Craig, H., Horibe, Y., and Sowers, T.: Gravitational Separation of Gases and Isotopes in Polar Ice Caps, Science, 242, 1675–1678, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.242.4886.1675">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.242.4886.1675</a>, 1988.

Cuffey, K., Clow, G., Alley, R., Stuiver, M., Waddington, E., and Saltus, R.: Large arctic temperature change at the Wisconsin–Holocene glacial transition, Science, 270, 455–458, 1995.

Dansgaard, W. and Johnsen, S. J.: A flow model and a time scale for the ice core from Camp Century, Greenland, J. Glaciol., 8, 215–223, 1969.

Dansgaard, W., Clausen, H., Gundestrup, N., Hammer, C., Johnsen, S., Gristinsdottir, P., and Reeh, N.: A New Greenland Deep Ice Core, Science, 218, 1273–1277, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.218.4579.1273">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.218.4579.1273</a>, 1982.

Dansgaard, W., Johnsen, S., Clausen, H., Dahljensen, D., Gundestrup, N., Hammer, C., Hvidberg, C., Steffensen, J., Sveinbjornsdottir, A., Jouzel, J., and Bond, G.: Evidence for general instability of past climate from a 250-kyr ice-core record, Nature, 364, 218–220, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/364218a0">https://doi.org/10.1038/364218a0</a>, 1993.

Deplazes, G., Lückge, A., Peterson, L. C., Timmermann, A., Hamann, Y., Hughen, K. A., Rühl, U., Laj, C., Cane, M. A., Sigman, D. M., and Haug, G. H.: Links between tropical rainfall and North Atlantic climate during the last glacial period, Nat. Geosci., 6, 213–217, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1712">https://doi.org/10.1038/NGEO1712</a>, 2013.

Dokken, T. M., Nisancioglu, K. H., Li, C., Battisti, D. S., and Kissel, C.: Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles: Interactions between ocean and sea ice intrinsic to the Nordic seas, Paleoceanography, 28, 491–502, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/palo.20042">https://doi.org/10.1002/palo.20042</a>, 2013.

EPICA community members: One-to-one coupling of glacial climate variability in Greenland and Antarctica, Nature, 444, 195–198, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature05301">https://doi.org/10.1038/nature05301</a>, 2006.

Fawcett, P. J., Agustdóttir, A. M., Alley, R. B., and Shuman, C. A.: The Younger Dryas termination and North Atlantic Deep Water Formation: Insights from climate model simulations and Greenland ice cores, Paleoceanography, 12, 23–38, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96PA02711">https://doi.org/10.1029/96PA02711</a>, 1997.

Fleitmann, D., Cheng, H., Badertscher, S., Edwards, R. L., Mudelsee, M., Goektuerk, O. M., Fankhauser, A., Pickering, R., Raible, C. C., Matter, A., Kramers, J., and Tuysuz, O.: Timing and climatic impact of Greenland interstadials recorded in stalagmites from northern Turkey, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L19707, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040050">https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040050</a>, 2009.

Genty, D., Combourieu-Nebout, N., Peyron, O., Blamart, D., Wainer, K., Mansuri, F., Ghaleb, B., Isabello, L., Dormoy, I., von Grafenstein, U., Bonelli, S., Landais, A., and Brauer, A.: Isotopic characterization of rapid climatic events during OIS3 and OIS4 in Villars Cave stalagmites (SW-France) and correlation with Atlantic and Mediterranean pollen records, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 2799–2820, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.035">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.06.035</a>, 2010.

Gildor, H. and Tziperman, E.: Sea-ice switches and abrupt climate change, Philos. T. Roy. Soc. A, 361, 1935–1942, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2003.1244">https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2003.1244</a>, 2003.

Goujon, C., Barnola, J., and Ritz, C.: Modeling the densification of polar firn including heat diffusion: Application to close-off characteristics and gas isotopic fractionation for Antarctica and Greenland sites, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4792, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD003319">https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD003319</a>, 2003.

Grachev, A. and Severinghaus, J.: A revised +10 ± 4 degrees °C magnitude of the abrupt change in Greenland temperature at the Younger Dryas termination using published GISP2 gas isotope data and air thermal diffusion constants, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 24, 513–519, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.10.016">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.10.016</a>, 2005.

Guillevic, M., Bazin, L., Landais, A., Kindler, P., Orsi, A., Masson-Delmotte, V., Blunier, T., Buchardt, S. L., Capron, E., Leuenberger, M., Martinerie, P., Prié, F., and Vinther, B. M.: Spatial gradients of temperature, accumulation and δ18O-ice in Greenland over a series of Dansgaard–Oeschger events, Clim. Past, 9, 1029–1051, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-1029-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-1029-2013</a>, 2013.

Hemming, S.: Heinrich events: Massive late pleistocene detritus layers of the North Atlantic and their global climate imprint, Rev. Geophys., 42, RG1005, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003RG000128">https://doi.org/10.1029/2003RG000128</a>, 2004.

Huber, C. and Leuenberger, M.: Measurements of isotope and elemental ratios of air from polar ice with a new on-line extraction method, Geochem. Geophy. Geosy., 5, Q10002, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004GC000766">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GC000766</a>, 2004.

Huber, C., Leuenberger, M., and Zumbrunnen, O.: Continuous extraction of trapped air from bubble ice or water for on-line determination of isotope ratios, Anal. Chem., 75, 2324–2332, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac0263972">https://doi.org/10.1021/ac0263972</a>, 2003.

Huber, C., Beyerle, U., Leuenberger, M., Schwander, J., Kipfer, R., Spahni, R., Severinghaus, J., and Weiler, K.: Evidence for molecular size dependent gas fractionation in firn air derived from noble gases, oxygen, and nitrogen measurements, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 243, 61–73, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2005.12.036">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2005.12.036</a>, 2006a.

Huber, C., Leuenberger, M., Spahni, R., Flückiger, J., Schwander, J., Stocker, T., Johnsen, S., Landals, A., and Jouzel, J.: Isotope calibrated Greenland temperature record over Marine Isotope Stage 3 and its relation to CH4, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 243, 504–519, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.01.002">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.01.002</a>, 2006b.

Johnsen, S. J., Dansgaard, W., Clausen, H., and Langway, C.: Oxygen Isotope Profiles through the Antarctic and Greenland Ice Sheets, Nature, 235, 429–434, 1972.

Johnsen, S. J., Dansgaard, W., and White, J. W. C.: The origin of Arctic precipitation under present and glacial climate, Tellus B, 41, 452–468, 1989.

Johnsen, S. J., Clausen, H. B., Dansgaard, W., Fuhrer, K., Gundestrup, N., Hammer, C. U., Iversen, P., Jouzel, J., Stauffer, B., and Steffensen, J. P.: Irregular glacial interstadials recorded in a new Greenland ice core, Nature, 359, 311–313, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/359311a0">https://doi.org/10.1038/359311a0</a>, 1992.

Johnsen, S. J., Dahl-Jensen, D., Dansgaard, W., and Gundestrup, N.: Greenland paleotemperatures derived from GRIP borehole temperature and ice core isotope profiles, Tellus B, 47, 624 – 629, 1995.

Johnsen, S. J., Dahl-Jensen, D., Gundestrup, N., Steffensen, J. P., Clausen, H. B., Miller, H., Masson-Delmotte, V., Sveinbjörnsdóttir, A., and White, J.: Oxygen isotope and palaeotemperature records from six Greenland ice-core stations: Camp Century, Dye-3, GRIP, GISP2, Renland and NorthGRIP, J. Quaternary Sci., 16, 299–307, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jqs.622">https://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.622</a>, 2001.

Jonkers, L., Moros, M., Prins, M. A., Dokken, T., Dahl, C. A., Dijkstra, N., Perner, K., and Brummer, G.-J. A.: A reconstruction of sea surface warming in the northern North Atlantic during MIS 3 ice-rafting events, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 1791–1800, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.03.014">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.03.014</a>, 2010.

Jouzel, J., Vimeux, F., Caillon, N., Delaygue, G., Hoffmann, G., Masson-Delmotte, V., and Parrenin, F.: Magnitude of isotope/temperature scaling for interpretation of central Antarctic ice cores, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4361, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002677">https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002677</a>, 2003.

Jouzel, J., Stiévenard, N., Johnsen, S., Landais, A., Masson-Delmotte, V., Sveinbjörnsdóttir, A., Vimeux, F., von Grafenstein, U., and White, J.: The GRIP deuterium-excess record, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 1–17, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.07.015">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.07.015</a>, 2007.

Kageyama, M., Merkel, U., Otto-Bliesner, B., Prange, M., Abe-Ouchi, A., Lohmann, G., Ohgaito, R., Roche, D. M., Singarayer, J., Swingedouw, D., and Zhang, X.: Climatic impacts of fresh water hosing under Last Glacial Maximum conditions: a multi-model study, Clim. Past, 9, 935–953, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-935-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-935-2013</a>, 2013.

Kanner, L. C., Burns, S. J., Cheng, H., and Edwards, R. L.: High-Latitude Forcing of the South American Summer Monsoon During the Last Glacial, Science, 335, 570–573, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1213397">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1213397</a>, 2012.

Kaspi, Y., Sayag, R., and Tziperman, E.: A 'triple sea-ice state' mechanism for the abrupt warming and synchronous ice sheet collapses during Heinrich events, Paleoceanography, 19, PA3004, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001009">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001009</a>, 2004.

Kobashi, T., Kawamura, K., Severinghaus, J. P., Barnola, J.-M., Nakaegawa, T., Vinther, B. M., Johnsen, S. J., and Box, J. E.: High variability of Greenland surface temperature over the past 4000 years estimated from trapped air in an ice core, Geophys. Res. Lett., 38, L21501, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049444">https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049444</a>, 2011.

Krinner, G., Genthon, C., and Jouzel, J.: GCM analysis of local influences on ice core δ signals, Geophys. Res. Lett., 24, 2825–2828, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/97GL52891">https://doi.org/10.1029/97GL52891</a>, 1997.

Landais, A., Barnola, J., Kawamura, K., Caillon, N., Delmotte, M., Ommen, T. V., Dreyfus, G., Jouzel, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Minster, B., Freitag, J., Leuenberger, M., Schwander, J., Huber, C., Etheridge, D., and Morgan, V.: Firn-air δ15N in modern polar sites and glacial–interglacial ice: a model-data mismatch during glacial periods in Antarctica?, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 49–62, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.06.007">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2005.06.007</a>, 2006.

Landais, A., Caillon, N., Severinghaus, J., Jouzen, J., and Masson-Delmotte, V.: Analyses isotopiques à haute précision de l'air piégé dans les glaces polaires pour la quantification des variations rapides de température: méthode et limites, Notes des Activités Instrumentales de l'IPSL, note no. 39, 2003.

Landais, A., Barnola, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Jouzel, J., Chappellaz, J., Caillon, N., Huber, C., Leuenberger, M., and Johnsen, S.: A continuous record of temperature evolution over a sequence of Dansgaard-Oeschger events during Marine Isotopic Stage 4 (76 to 62 kyr BP), Geophys. Res. Lett., 31, L22211, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021193">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004GL021193</a>, 2004a.

Landais, A., Caillon, N., Goujon, C., Grachev, A., Barnola, J., Chappellaz, J., Jouzel, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., and Leuenberger, M.: Quantification of rapid temperature change during DO event 12 and phasing with methane inferred from air isotopic measurements, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 225, 221–232, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.06.009">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2004.06.009</a>, 2004b.

Landais, A., Caillon, N., Severinghaus, J., Barnola, J., Goujon, C., Jouzel, J., and Masson-Delmotte, V.: Isotopic measurements of air trapped in ice to quantify temperature changes, C.R. Geosci., 336, 963–970, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2004.03.013">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2004.03.013</a>, 2004c.

Landais, A., Jouzel, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., and Caillon, N.: Large temperature variations over rapid climatic events in Greenland: a method based on air isotopic measurements, C.R. Geosci., 337, 947–956, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2005.04.003">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crte.2005.04.003</a>, 2005.

Lang, C., Leuenberger, M., Schwander, J., and Johnsen, S.: 16 °C Rapid Temperature Variation in Central Greenland 70,000 Years Ago, Science, 286, 934–937, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.286.5441.934">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.286.5441.934</a>, 1999.

Leuenberger, M. C., Lang, C., and Schwander, J.: δ15N measurements as a calibration tool for the paleothermometer and gas-ice age differences: A case study for the 8200 B.P. event on GRIP ice, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 104, 22163–22170, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1999JD900436">https://doi.org/10.1029/1999JD900436</a>, 1999.

Li, C., Battisti, D., Schrag, D., and Tziperman, E.: Abrupt climate shifts in Greenland due to displacements of the sea ice edge, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L19702, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023492">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023492</a>, 2005.

Li, C., Battisti, D. S., and Bitz, C. M.: Can North Atlantic Sea Ice Anomalies Account for Dansgaard-Oeschger Climate Signals?, J. Climate, 23, 5457–5475, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3409.1">https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JCLI3409.1</a>, 2010.

Lisiecki, L. and Raymo, M.: A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records, Paleoceanography, 20, PA1003, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001071">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001071</a>, 2005.

Masson-Delmotte, V., Jouzel, J., Landais, A., Stiévenard, M., Johnsen, S. J., White, J. W. C., Werner, M., Sveinbjörnsdóttir, A., and Fuhrer, K.: GRIP deuterium excess reveals rapid and orbital-scale changes in Greenland moisture origin, Science, 309, 118–121, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1108575">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1108575</a>, 2005.

Mayewski, P., Meeker, L., Twickler, M., Whitlow, S., Yang, Q., Lyons, W., and Prentice, M.: Major features and forcing of high-latitude northern hemisphere atmospheric circulation using a 110,000-year-long glaciochemical series, J. Geophys. Res.-Oceans, 102, 26345–26366, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96JC03365">https://doi.org/10.1029/96JC03365</a>, 1997.

NGRIP members: High-resolution record of Northern Hemisphere climate extending into the last interglacial period, Nature, 431, 147–151, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02805">https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02805</a>, 2004.

Paterson, W. S. B.: The Physics of Glaciers, Pergamon, Tarrytown, N.Y., 1994.

Petersen, S. V., Schrag, D. P., and Clark, P. U.: A new mechanism for Dansgaard–Oeschger cycles, Paleoceanography, 28, 24–30, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012PA002364">https://doi.org/10.1029/2012PA002364</a>, 2013.

Rasmussen, S. O., Bigler, M., Blockley, S. P. E., Blunier, T., Buchardt, S. L., Clausen, H. B., Cvijanovic, I., Dahl-Jensen, D., Johnsen, S. J., Fischer, H., Gkinis, V., Guillevic, M., Hoek, W. Z., Lowe, J. J., Pedro, J., Popp, T., Seierstad, I., Steffensen, J. P., Svensson, A. M., Vallelonga, P., Vinther, B. M., Walker, M. J. C., Wheatley, J. J., and Winstrup, M.: A stratigraphic framework for robust naming and correlation of past abrupt climatic changes during the last glacial period based on three synchronized Greenland ice core records, Quaternary Sci. Rev., submitted, 2013.

Roche, D., Paillard, D., and Cortijo, E.: Constraints on the duration and freshwater release of Heinrich event 4 through isotope modelling, Nature, 432, 379–382, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature03059">https://doi.org/10.1038/nature03059</a>, 2004.

Ruth, U., Wagenbach, D., Steffensen, J., and Bigler, M.: Continuous record of microparticle concentration and size distribution in the central Greenland NGRIP ice core during the last glacial period, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 108, 4098, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002376">https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002376</a>, 2003.

Sánchez Goñi, M. F. and Harrison, S. P.: Millennial-scale climate variability and vegetation changes during the Last Glacial: Concepts and terminology Introduction, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 2823–2827, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.11.014">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.11.014</a>, 2010.

Sánchez Goñi, M. F., Turon, J., Eynaud, F., and Gendreau, S.: European climatic response to millennial-scale changes in the atmosphere-ocean system during the last glacial period, Quaternary Res., 54, 394–403, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/qres.2000.2176">https://doi.org/10.1006/qres.2000.2176</a>, 2000.

Schilt, A., Baumgartner, M., Blunier, T., Schwander, J., Spahni, R., Fischer, H., and Stocker, T. F.: Glacial-interglacial and millennial-scale variations in the atmospheric nitrous oxide concentration during the last 800,000 years, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 182–192, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.03.011">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.03.011</a>, 2010.

Schwander, J.: The Transformation of Snow to Ice and the Occlusion of Gases, in: The Environmental Record in Glaciers and Ice Sheets, edited by: Oeschger, H. and Langway, C. C., Physical, Chemical, and Earth Sciences Research Reports, John Wiley and Sons Ltd, New York, 53–67, 1989.

Schwander, J., Sowers, T., Barnola, J., Blunier, T., Fuchs, A., and Malaizé, B.: Age scale of the air in the summit ice: Implication for glacial-interglacial temperature change, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 102, 19483–19493, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/97JD01309">https://doi.org/10.1029/97JD01309</a>, 1997.

Severinghaus, J. P. and Battle, M. O.: Fractionation of gases in polar lee during bubble close-off: new constraints from firn air Ne, Kr and Xe observations, Earth Planet. Sc. Lett., 244, 474–500, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.01.032">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2006.01.032</a>, 2006.

Severinghaus, J. P., Sowers, T., Brook, E. J., Alley, R. B., and Bender, M. L.: Timing of abrupt climate change at the end of the Younger Dryas interval from thermally fractionated gases in polar ice, Nature, 391, 141–146, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/34346">https://doi.org/10.1038/34346</a>, 1998.

Sjolte, J., Hoffmann, G., Johnsen, S. J., Vinther, B. M., Masson-Delmotte, V., and Sturm, C.: Modeling the water isotopes in Greenland precipitation 1959–2001 with the meso-scale model REMO-iso, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 116, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015287">https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD015287</a>, 2011.

Spahni, R., Schwander, J., Flückiger, J., Stauffer, B., Chappellaz, J., and Raynaud, D.: The attenuation of fast atmospheric CH4 variations recorded in polar ice cores, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1571, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017093">https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017093</a>, 2003.

Steen-Larsen, H. C., Masson-Delmotte, V., Sjolte, J., Johnsen, S. J., Vinther, B. M., Bréon, F.-M., Clausen, H. B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Falourd, S., Fettweis, X., Gallée, H., Jouzel, J., Kageyama, M., Lerche, H., Minster, B., Picard, G., Punge, H. J., Risi, C., Salas, D., Schwander, J., Steffen, K., Sveinbjörnsdóttir, A. E., Svensson, A., and White, J. W. C.: Understanding the climatic signal in the water stable isotope records from the NEEM shallow firn/ice cores in northwest Greenland, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D06108, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014311">https://doi.org/10.1029/2010JD014311</a>, 2011.

Steffensen, J. P., Andersen, K. K., Bigler, M., Clausen, H. B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Fischer, H., Goto-Azuma, K., Hansson, M., Johnsen, S. J., Jouzel, J., Masson-Delmotte, V., Popp, T., Rasmussen, S. O., Röthlisberger, R., Ruth, U., Stauffer, B., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Sveinbjörnsdóttir, A. E., Svensson, A., and White, J. W. C.: High-resolution Greenland Ice Core data show abrupt climate change happens in few years, Science, 321, 680–684, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1157707">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1157707</a>, 2008.

Steig, E., Grootes, P., and Stuiver, M.: Seasonal Precipitation Timing and Ice Core Records, Science, 266, 1885–1886, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.266.5192.1885">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.266.5192.1885</a>, 1994.

Stocker, T. and Johnsen, S.: A minimum thermodynamic model for the bipolar seesaw, Paleoceanography, 18, 1087, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003PA000920">https://doi.org/10.1029/2003PA000920</a>, 2003.

Svensson, A., Andersen, K. K., Bigler, M., Clausen, H. B., Dahl-Jensen, D., Davies, S. M., Johnsen, S. J., Muscheler, R., Parrenin, F., Rasmussen, S. O., Röthlisberger, R., Seierstad, I., Steffensen, J. P., and Vinther, B. M.: A 60 000 year Greenland stratigraphic ice core chronology, Clim. Past, 4, 47–57, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-4-47-2008">https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-4-47-2008</a>, 2008.

Thomas, E. R., Wolff, E. W., Mulvaney, R., Johnsen, S. J., Steffensen, J. P., and Arrowsmith, C.: Anatomy of a Dansgaard-Oeschger warming transition: High-resolution analysis of the North Greenland Ice Core Project ice core, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 114, D08102, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011215">https://doi.org/10.1029/2008JD011215</a>, 2009.

Vallelonga, P., Bertagna, G., Blunier, T., Kjær, H. A., Popp, T. J., Rasmussen, S. O., Steffensen, J. P., Stowasser, C., Svensson, A. S., Warming, E., Winstrup, M., Bigler, M., and Kipfstuhl, S.: Duration of Greenland Stadial 22 and ice-gas Δage from counting of annual layers in Greenland NGRIP ice core, Clim. Past, 8, 1839–1847, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-8-1839-2012">https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-8-1839-2012</a>, 2012.

Vimeux, F., Masson, V., Jouzel, J., Stievenard, M., and Petit, J.: Glacial-interglacial changes in ocean surface conditions in the southern hemisphere, Nature, 398, 410–413, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/18860">https://doi.org/10.1038/18860</a>, 1999.

Voelker, A. H. L.: Global distribution of centennial-scale records for Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3: a database, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 1185–1212, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00139-1">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00139-1</a>, 2002.

Wang, Y., Cheng, H., Edwards, R., An, Z., Wu, J., Shen, C., and Dorale, J.: A high-resolution absolute-dated Late Pleistocene monsoon record from Hulu Cave, China, Science, 294, 2345–2348, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1064618">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1064618</a>, 2001.

Wolff, E. W., Chappellaz, J., Blunier, T., Rasmussen, S. O., and Svensson, A.: Millennial-scale variability during the last glacial: The ice core record, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 2828–2838, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.10.013">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.10.013</a>, 2010.