CP Climate of the Past CP Clim. Past 1814-9332 Copernicus Publications Göttingen, Germany 10.5194/cp-10-181-2014 Holocene sub-centennial evolution of Atlantic water inflow and sea ice distribution in the western Barents Sea Berben S. M. P. 1 Husum K. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1380-5900 1 Cabedo-Sanz P. 2 Belt S. T. 2 Department of Geology, University of Tromsø, 9037 Tromsø, Norway Biogeochemistry Research Centre, School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK 23 01 2014 10 1 181 198 Copyright: © 2014 S. M. P. Berben et al. 2014 This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ This article is available from https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/10/181/2014/cp-10-181-2014.html The full text article is available as a PDF file from https://cp.copernicus.org/articles/10/181/2014/cp-10-181-2014.pdf

A marine sediment core (JM09-KA11-GC) from the Kveithola Trough at the western Barents Sea margin has been investigated in order to reconstruct sub-surface temperatures and sea ice distribution at a sub-centennial resolution throughout the Holocene. The relationship between past variability of Atlantic water inflow and sea ice distribution has been established by measurement of planktic foraminifera, stable isotopes and biomarkers from sea ice diatoms and phytoplankton. <br><br> Throughout the early Holocene (11 900–7300 cal yr BP), the foraminiferal fauna is dominated by the polar species <i>Neogloboquadrina pachyderma</i> (sinistral) and the biomarkers show an influence of seasonal sea ice. Between 10 900 and 10 700 cal yr BP, a clear cooling is shown both by fauna and stable isotope data corresponding to the so-called Preboreal Oscillation. After 7300 cal yr BP, the sub-polar <i>Turborotalita quinqueloba</i> becomes the most frequent species, reflecting a stable Atlantic water inflow. Sub-surface temperatures reach 6 °C and biomarker data indicate mainly ice-free conditions. During the last 1100 cal yr BP, biomarker abundances and distributions show the reappearance of low-frequency seasonal sea ice and the planktic fauna show a reduced salinity in the sub-surface water. No apparent temperature decrease is observed during this interval, but the rapidly fluctuating fauna and biomarker distributions indicate more unstable conditions.

 References Aagaard-Sørensen, S., Husum, K., Hald, M., and Knies, J.: Paleoceanographic development in the SW Barents Sea during the Late Weichselian-Early Holocene transition, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 1–15, 2010. Andersen, C., Koç, N., Jennings, A. E., and Andrews, J. T.: Nonuniform response of the major surface currents in the Nordic Seas to insolation forcing: implications for the Holocene climate variability, Paleoceanography, 19, PA2003, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002PA000873">https://doi.org/10.1029/2002PA000873</a>, 2004. Andersson, C., Risebrobakken, B., Jansen, E., and Dahl, S.O.: Late Holocene surface ocean conditions of the Norwegian Sea (Vöring Plateau), Paleoceanography, 18, 1044, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2001PA000654">https://doi.org/10.1029/2001PA000654</a>, 2003. Andersson, C., Pausata, F. S. R., Jansen, E., Risebrobakken, B., and Telford, R. J.: Holocene trends in the foraminifer record from the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, Clim. Past, 6, 179–193, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-179-2010">https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-6-179-2010</a>, 2010. Archer, D.: A data-driven model of the global calcite lysocline, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 10, 511–526, 1996. Archer, D. and Maier-Reimer, E.: Effect of deep-sea sedimentary calcite preservation on atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> concentration, Nature, 367, 260–263, 1994. Aure, J. and Strand, Ø.: Hydrographic normals and long-term variations at fixed surface layer stations along the Norwegian coast from 1936 to 2000, Fisken og Havet, 13, 1–24, 2001. Barker, S. and Elderfield, H.: Foraminiferal calcification response to glacial interglacial changes in atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>, Science, 297, 883–836, 2002. Barker, S., Kiefer, T., and Elderfield, H.: Temporal changes in North Atlantic circulation constrained by planktonic foraminiferal shell weights, Paleoceanography, 19, PA3008, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001004">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001004</a>, 2004. Bauch, H. A. and Weinelt, M. S.: Surface water changes in the Norwegian Sea during last deglacial and Holocene times, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 16, 1115–1124, 1997. Bé, A. W. H. and Tolderlund, D. S.: Distribution and ecology of living planktonic foraminifera in surface waters of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, in: The micropaleontology of oceans, edited by: Funnel, B. M. and Riedel, W. R., Cambridge University Press, London, 1–100, 1971. Becker, B., Kromer, B., and Trimborn, P.: A stable isotope tree-ring timescale of the Late Glacial/Holocene boundary, Nature, 353, 647–649, 1991. Beer, C. J., Schiebel, R., and Wilson, P. A.: Testing planktic foraminiferal shell weight as a surface water [CO$_3^2-$] proxy using plankton net samples, Geology, 38, 103–106, 2010. Belt, S. T. and Müller, J.: The Arctic sea ice biomarker IP<sub>25</sub>: a review of current understanding, recommendations for future research and applications in palaeo sea ice reconstructions, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 79, 9–25, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.12.001">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.12.001</a>, 2013. Belt, S. T., Masseé, G., Rowland, S. J., Poulin, M., Michel, C., and LeBlanc, B.: A novel chemical fossil of palaeo sea ice: IP<sub>25</sub>, Org. Geochem., 38, 16–27, 2007. Belt, S. T., Brown, T. A., Navarro Rodriguez, A., Cabedo Sanz, P., Tonkin, A., and Ingle, R.: A reproducible method for the extraction, identification and quantification of the Arctic sea ice proxy IP<sub>25</sub> from marine sediments, Anal. Method., 4, 705–713, 2012. Bergami, C., Capotondi, L., Langone, L., Giglio, F., and Ravaioli, M.: Distribution of living planktonic foraminifera in the Ross Sea and the Pacific sector of the Southern Ocean (Antarctica), Mar. Micropaleontol., 73, 37–48, 2009. Berger, A.: Long-term variations of daily insolation and quaternary climatic changes, J. Atmos. Sci., 35, 2363–2367, 1978. Berger, W. H.: Planktonic foraminifera: Selective solution and the lysocline, Mar. Geol., 8, 111–138, 1970. Birks, H. J. B.: Quantitative palaeoenvironmental reconstructions, in: Statistical modelling of quaternary science data, edited by: Maddy, D. and Brew, J. S., Quaternary Research Association, Cambridge, UK, 116–254, 1995. Birks, C. J. A. and Koç, N.: A high-resolution diatom record of late-quaternary sea-surface temperatures and oceanographic conditions from the eastern Norwegian Sea, Boreas, 31, 323–344, 2002. Björck, S., Kromer, B., Johnsen, S., Bennike, O., Hammarlund, D., Lemdahl, G., Possnert, G., Rasmussen, T. L., Wohlfarth, B., Hammer, C. U., and Spurk, M.: Synchronized terrestrial atmospheric deglacial records around the North Atlantic, Science, 274, 1155–1160, 1996. Blindheim, J.: The seas of Norden, in: Norden: Man and environment, edited by: Varjo, U. and Tietze, W., Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin, 20–32, 1987. Boltovskoy, E., Boltovskoy, D., Correa, N., and Brandini, F.: Planktic foraminifera from the southwestern Atlantic (30°–60°S): Species-specific patterns in the upper 50 m, Mar. Micropaleontol., 28, 53–72, 1996. Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., deMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajdas, I., and Bonani, G.: A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates, Science, 278, 1257–1266, 1997. Broecker, W. S.: The great ocean conveyor. Oceanography, 4, 79–89, 1991. Broecker, W. S. and Clark, E.: An evaluation of Lohmann's foraminifera weight dissolution index, Paleoceanography, 16, 531–534, 2001. Brown, T. A. and Belt, S. T.: Identification of the sea ice diatom biomarker IP<sub>25</sub> in Arctic benthic macrofauna: Direct evidence for a sea ice diatom diet in Arctic heterotrophs, Polar Biol., 35, 131–137, 2012. Brown, T. A., Belt, S. T., Philippe, B., Mundy, C. J., Massé, G., Poulin, M., and Gosselin, M.: Temporal and vertical variations of lipid biomarkers during a bottom ice diatom bloom in the Canadian Beaufort Sea: Further evidence for the use of the IP<sub>25</sub> biomarker as a proxy for spring Arctic sea ice, Polar Biol., 34, 1857–1868, 2011. Burhol, A. L. S.: Recent distribution of planktonic foraminifera on the Svalbard-Barents margin, Master Thesis, University of Tromsø, Norway, 1994. Cabedo-Sanz, P., Belt, S. T., Knies, J., and Husum, K: Identification of contrasting seasonal sea ice conditions during the Younger Dryas, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 79, 74–86, 2013. Calvo, E., Grimalt, J., and Jansen, E.: High resolution U$_K^37$ sea surface temperature reconstruction in the Norwegian Sea during the Holocene, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 21, 1385–1394, 2002. Carstens, J., Hebbeln, D., and Wefer, G.: Distribution of planktic foraminifera at the ice margin in the Arctic (Fram Strait), Mar. Micropaleontol., 29, 257–269, 1997. Cifelli, R.: Globigerina incompta, a new species of pelagic foraminifera from the North Atlantic, Contributions Cushman Foundation Foraminiferal Research, 12, 83–86, 1961. Comiso, J. C., Parkinson, C. L., Gersten, R., and Stock, L.: Accelerated decline in the Arctic sea ice cover, Geophys. Res. Lett., 35, L01703, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031972">https://doi.org/10.1029/2007GL031972</a>, 2008. Conan, S. M. H., Ivanova, E. M., and Brummer, G. J. A.: Quantifying carbonate dissolution and calibration of foraminiferal dissolution indices in the Somali Basin, Mar. Geol., 182, 325–349, 2002. Darling, K. F., Kucera, M., Kroon, D., and Wade, C. M.: A resolution for the coiling direction paradox in Neogloboquadrina pachyderma, Paleoceanography, 21, PA2011, https://doi.org/10-1029/2005PA001189, 2006. Dieckmann, G. S. and Hellmer, H. H.: The importance of sea ice: An overview, in: Sea ice: An introduction to its physics, chemistry, biology and geology, edited by: Thomas, D. N. and Dieckmann, G. S., Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470757161.ch1">https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470757161.ch1</a>, 2008. Duplessy, J. C., Ivanova, E., Murdmaa, I., Paterne, M., and Labeyrie, L.: Holocene paleoceanography of the northern Barents Sea and variations of the northward heat transport by the Atlantic Ocean, Boreas, 30, 2–16, 2001. Duplessy, J. C., Cortijo, E., Ivanova, E., Khusid, T., Labeyrie, L., Levitan, M., Murdmaa, I., and Paterne, M.: Paleoceanography of the Barents Sea during the Holocene, Paleoceanography, 20, A4004, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001116">https://doi.org/10.1029/2004PA001116</a>, 2005. Dylmer, C. V., Giraudeau, J., Eynaud, F., Husum, K., and De Vernal, A.: Northward advection of Atlantic water in the eastern Nordic Seas over the last 3000 yr: A coccolith investigation of volume transport and surface water changes, Clim. Past, 9, 1505–1518, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-1505-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/cp-9-1505-2013</a>, 2013. Ebbesen, H., Hald, M., and Eplet, T. H.: Late glacial and early Holocene climatic oscillations on the western Svalbard margin, European Arctic, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 1999–2011, 2007. Edmond, J. M. and Gieskes, T. M.: On the calculation of the degree of saturation of sea water with respect to calcium carbonate under in situ conditions, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 35, 1261–1291, 1970. Ehrmann, W. U. and Thiede, J.: History of Mesozoic and Cenozoic sediment fluxes to the North Atlantic Ocean, Contributions to Sedimentology E. Schweizerbart'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart, 15, 1-109, ISBN 3-510-57015-4, 1985. Eynaud, F.: Planktonic foraminifera in the Arctic: Potentials and issues regarding modern and quaternary populations, IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 14, 2011. Fairbanks, R. G.: A 17 000-year glacia-eustatic sea level record: Influence of glacial melting rates on the Younger Dryas event and deep-ocean circulation, Nature, 342, 637–642, 1989. Francis, J. A., Chan, W., Leathers, D. J., Miller, J. R., and Veron, D. E.: Winter Northern Hemisphere weather patterns remember summer Arctic sea-ice extent, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L07503, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009GL037274">https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL037274</a>, 2009. Giraudeau, J., Jennings, A. E., and Andrews, J. T.: Timing and mechanisms of surface and intermediate water circulation changes in the Nordic seas over the last 10,000 cal years: A view from the north Iceland shelf, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 23, 212-7-2139, 2004. Goosse, H. and Holland, M.: Mechanisms of decadal and interdecadal Arctic variability in the Community Climate System Model CCSM2, J. Climate, 18, 3552–3570, 2005. Groot, D. E., Aagaard-Sørensen, S., and Husum, K.: Reconstruction of Atlantic Water variability during the Holocene in the western Barents Sea, Clim. Past Discuss., 9, 4293–4322, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/cpd-9-4293-2013">https://doi.org/10.5194/cpd-9-4293-2013</a>, 2013. Gyllencreutz, R., Mangerud, J., Svendsen, J. I., and Lohne, Ø.: Reconstructing growth and decay of the Eurasian ice sheet during the Late Weichselian, 33rd International Geological Congress (33IGC), 6–14 August 2008, HPQ01805L, available at: <a href="http://www.cprm.gov.br/33IGC/1345819.html">http://www.cprm.gov.br/33IGC/1345819.html</a>, 2008. Hald, M. and Hagen, S.: Early preboreal cooling in the Nordic Sea region triggered by meltwater, Geology, 26, 615–618, 1998. Hald, M., Kolstad, V., Polyak, L., Forman, S. L., Herlihy, F. A., Ivanov, G., and Nesheretov, A.: Late-glacial and Holocene paleoceanography and sedimentary environments in the St. Anna trough, Eurasian Arctic Ocean margin, Paleoceanography, Paleoclimatology, Palaecology, 146, 229–249, 1999. Hald, M., Ebbesen, H., Forwick, M., Godtliebsen, F., Khomenko, L., Korsun, S., Ringstad Olsen, L., and Vorren, T. O.: Holocene paleoceanography and glacial history of the West Spitsbergen area, Euro-Arctic margin, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 23, 2075–2088, 2004. Hald, M., Andersson, C., Ebbesen, H., Jansen, E., Klitegaard-Kristensen, D., Risebrobakken, B., Salomonsen, G. R., Sejrup, H. P., Sarnthein, M., and Telford, R.: Variations in temperature and extent of Atlantic water in the northern North Atlantic during the Holocene, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 3423–3440, 2007. Hemleben, C., Spindler, M., and Anderson, O. R.: Modern planktonic foraminifera, Springer, New York, 363 pp., 1989. Henrich, R., Baumann, K. H., Huber, R., and Meggers, H.: Carbonate preservation records of the past 3Myr in the Norwegian-Greenland Sea and the northern North Atlantic: Implications for the history of NADW production, Mar. Geol., 184, 17–39, 2002. Hopkins, T. S.: The GIN Sea: A synthesis of its physical oceanography and literature review, 1972–1985, Earth Sci. Rev., 30, 175–318, 1991. Huber, R., Meggers, H., Baumann, K. H., and Henrich, R.: Recent and Pleistocene carbonate dissolution in sediments of the Norwegian-Greenland Sea, Mar. Geol., 165, 123–136, 2000. Husum, K. and Hald, M.: Early Holocene cooling events in Malangenfjord and the adjoining shelf, north-east Norwegian Sea, Polar Res., 21, 267–274, 2002. Husum, K. and Hald, M.: A continuous marine record 8000–1600 cal. yr BP from the Malangenfjord, north Norway: Foraminiferal and isotopic evidence, Holocene, 14, 877–887, 2004. Husum, K. and Hald, M.: Arctic planktic foraminiferal assemblages: Implications for subsurface temperature reconstructions, Mar. Micropaleontol., 96–97, 38–47, 2012. Imbrie, J. and Kipp, N. G.: A new micropaleontological method for quantitative paleoclimatology: Applications to a late Pleistocene Caribbean core, in: Late Cenozoic Glacial Ages, edited by: Turkian, K. K., Yale University Press, New Haven, 71–191, 1971. Jennings, A., Knudsen, K. L., Hald, M., Hansen, C. V., and Andrews, J. T.: A mid-Holocene shift in Arctic sea-ice variability on the East Greenland shelf, Holocene, 12, 49–58, 2002. Jernas, P., Klitgaard Kristensen, D., Husum, K., Wilson, L., and Koç, N.: Palaeoenvironmental changes of the last two millennia on the western and northern Svalbard shelf, Boreas, 42, 236–255, 2013. Jiang, H., Seidenkrantz, M. S., Knudsen, K. L., and Eiriksson, J.: Late-Holocene summer sea-surface temperatures based on a diatom record from the north Icelandic shelf, Holocene, 12, 137–147, 2002. Johannessen, T., Jansen, E., Flatøy, A., and Ravelo, A. C.: The relationship between surface water masses, oceanographic fronts and plaeoclimatic proxies in surface sediments of the Greenland, Iceland, Norwegian Seas, NATO, ASI Series, 61–86, 1994. Johnsen, S., Dahl-Jensen, D., Dansgaard, W., and Gundestrup, N.: Greenland paleotemperatures derived from GRIP bore hole temperature and ice core isotope profiles, Tellus, 5, 624–629, 1995. Jonkers, L., Brummer, G-J. A., Peeters, F. J. C., van Aken, H. M., and De Jong, M. F.: Seasonal stratification, shell flux, and oxygen isotope dynamics of left-coiling N. pachyderma and T. quinqueloba in the western sub polar North Atlantic, Paleoceanography, 25, PA2204, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009PA001849">https://doi.org/10.1029/2009PA001849</a>, 2010. Juggins, S.: C2 1.7.2, available at: <a href="http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/staff/stephen.juggins/">http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/staff/stephen.juggins/</a> (last access: 6 March 2013), 2010. Kaufman, D., Ager, T. A., Anderson, N. J., Anderson, P. M., Andrews, J. T., Bartlein, P. J., Brubakker, L. B., Coats, L. L., Cwynar, L. C., Duvall, M. L., Dyke, A. S., Edwards, M. E., Eisner, W. R., Gajewski, K., Geirsdottir, A., Hu, F. S., Jennings, A. E., Kaplan, M. R., Kerwin, M. W., Loshkin, A. V., MacDonald, G. M., Miller, G. H., Mock, C. J., Oswald, W. W., Otto-Bliesner, B. L., Porinchu, D. F., Rühland, K., Smol, J. P., Steig, E. J., and Wolfe, B. B.: Holocene thermal maximum in the western Arctic (0–180° N), Quaternary Sci. Rev., 23, 529–560, 2004. Kinnard, C., Zdanowicz, C. M., Fisher, A. F., Isaksson, E., de Vernal, A., and Thompson, L. G.: Reconstructed changes in Arctic sea ice over the past 1,450 years, Nature, 479, 509–512, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature10581">https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10581</a>, 2011. Knies, J.: Climate-induced changes in sedimentary regimes for organic matter supply on the continental shelf off northern Norway, Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 69, 4631–4647, 2005. Knudsen, K. L.: Foraminiferer i Kvartær stratigrafi: Laboratorie og fremstillingsteknik samt udvalgte eksempler, Geologisk Tidsskrift, 3, 1–25, 1998. Koç, N. and Jansen, E.: Response of the high-latitude Northern hemisphere to orbital climate forcing: evidence from the Nordic Seas, Geology, 22, 523–526, 1994. Koç, N., Jansen, E., and Haflidason, H.: Paleoceanographic reconstructions of surface ocean conditions in the Greenland, Iceland and Norwegian seas through the last 14 ka based on diatoms, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 12, 115–140, 1993. Kucera, M., Weinelt, M., Kiefer, T., Pflaumann, U., Hayes, A., Weinelt, M., Chen, M. T., Mix, A. C., Barrows, T. T., and Cortijo, E.: Reconstruction of sea-surface temperatures from assemblages of planktonic foraminifera: Multi-technique approach based on geographically constrained calibration data sets and its application to glacial Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 24, 951–998, 2005. Kvingedal, B.: Sea-ice extent and variability in the Nordic Seas, 1967-2002, in: The Nordic seas: An integrated perspective, edited by: Drange, H., Dokken, T., Furevik, T., Gerdes, R., and Berger, W., American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monograph, 158, 39–49, 2005. Laskar, J., Robutel, P., Joutel, F., Gastineau, M., Correia, A. C. M., and Levrard, B.: A long-term numerical solution for the insolation quantities of the Earth, Astron. Astrophys., 428, 261–285, 2004. Le, J. and Shackleton, N. J.: Carbonate dissolution fluctuations in the western equatorial Pacific during the late Quaternary, Paleoceanography, 7, 21–42, 1992. Le, J. N. and Thunell, R. C.: Modelling planktic foraminiferal assemblage changes and application to sea surface temperature estimation in the western equatorial Pacific Ocean, Mar. Micropaleontol., 28, 211–229, 1996. Loeng, H.: Features of the physical oceanographic conditions of the Barents Sea, Polar Res., 10, 5–18, 1991. Lohmann, G. P.: A model for variation in the chemistry of planktonic foraminifera due to secondary calcification and selective dissolution, Paleoceanography, 10, 445–457, 1995. Lubinski, D. J., Korsun, S., Polyak, L., Forman, S. L., Lehman, S. J., Herlihy, F. A., and Miller, G. H.: The last deglaciation of the Franz Victoria Trough, northern Barents Sea, Boreas, 25, 89–100, 1996. Mangerud, J. and Gulliksen, S.: Apparent radiocarbon ages of recent marine shells from Norway, Spitsbergen, and Arctic Canada, Quaternary Res., 5, 263–273, 1975. Mangerud, J., Bondevik, S., Gulliksen, S., Hufthammer, A. K., and Høisæter, T.: Marine 14C reservoir ages for 19th century whales and molluscs from the Nordic Atlantic, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 25, 3228–3245, 2006. Midttun, L.: Formation of dense bottom water in the Barents Sea, Deep-Sea Res., 32, 1233–1241, 1985. Moros, M., Emeis, K., Risebrobakken, B., Snowball, I., Kuijpers, A., McManus, J., and Jansen, E.: Sea surface temperatures and ice rafting in the Holocene North Atlantic: Climate influences on northern Europe and Greenland, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 23, 2113–2126, 2004. Müller, J., Massé, G., Stein, R., and Belt, S. T.: Variability of sea-ice conditions in the Fram Strait over the past 30 000 years, Nature Geosci., 2, 772–776, 2009. Müller, J., Wagner, A., Fahl, K., Stein, R., Prange, M., and Lohman, G.: Towards quantitative sea ice reconstructions in the northern North Atlantic: A combined biomarker and numerical modelling approach, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 306, 137–148, 2011. Müller, J., Werner, K., Stein, R., Fahl, K., Moros, M., and Jansen E.: Holocene cooling culminates in sea ice oscillations in Fram Strait, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 47, 1–14, 2012. Navarro-Rodriguez, A., Belt, S. T., Knies, J., Brown, T. A.: Mapping recent sea ice conditions in the Barents Sea using the proxy biomarker IP<sub>25</sub>: implications for palaeo sea ice reconstructions, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 79, 26–36, 2013. Orvik, K. A. and Skagseth, Ø.: The impact of the wind stress curl in the North Atlantic on the Atlantic inflow to the Norwegian Sea toward the Arctic, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30, 1884, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017932">https://doi.org/10.1029/2003GL017932</a>, 2003. Pflaumann, U., Sarnthein, M., Chapman, M., d'Abreu, L., Funnell, B., Huels, M., Kiefer, T., Maslin, M., Schulz, H., Swallow, J., van Kreveld, S., Vautravers, M., Vogelsang, E., and Weinelt, M.: Glacial North Atlantic sea-surface conditions reconstructed by GLAMAP 2000, Paleoceanography, 18, 1065, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002PA000774">https://doi.org/10.1029/2002PA000774</a>, 2003. Polyak, L., Alley, R. B., Andrews, J. T., Brigham-Grette, J., Cronin, T. M., Darby, D. A., Dyke, A. S., Fitzpatrick, J. J., Funder, S., Holland, M., Jennings, A. E., Miller, G. H., O'Regan, M., Savelle, J., Serreze, M., John, K. S., White, J. W. C., and Wolff, E.: History of sea ice in the Arctic, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 29, 1757–1778, 2010. Pufhl, H. A. and Shackleton, N. J.: Two proximal, high-resolution records of foraminiferal fragmentation and their implications for changes in dissolution, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 51, 809–832, 2004. Rasmussen, T. L., Thomsen, E., Slubowska, M. A., Jessen, S., Solheim, A., and Koç, N.: Paleoceanographic evolution of the SW Svalbard margin (76 ° N) since 20,000 <sup>14</sup>C yr BP, Quaternary Res., 67, 100–114, 2007. Reimer, P. J., Bard, E., Bayliss, A., Beck, J. W., Blackwell, P. G., Ramsey, C. B., Buck, C. E., Cheng, H., Edwards, R. L., Friedrich, M., Grootes, P. M., Guilderson, T. P., Haflidason, H., Hajdas, I., Hatté, C., Heaton, T. J., Hoffmann, D. L., Hogg, A. G., Hughen, K. A., Kaiser, K. F., Kromer, B., Manning, S. W., Niu, M., Reimer, R. W., Richards, D. A., Scott, E. M.; Southon, J. R., Staff, R. A., Turney, C. S. M., and Van Der Plicht, J.: IntCal13 and Marine13 radiocarbon age calibration curves, 0–50 000 years cal BP, Radiocarbon, 55, 1869–1887, 2013. Reynolds, L. and Thunnel, R. C.: Seasonal succession of planktonic foraminifera in the subpolar North Pacific, J. Foramin. Res., 15, 282–301, 1985. Risebrobakken, B., Jansen, E., Andersson, C., Mjelde, E., and Hevrøy, K.: A high-resolution study of Holocene paleoclimatic and paleoceanographic changes in the Nordic Seas, Paleoceanography, 18, 1017, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002PA000764">https://doi.org/10.1029/2002PA000764</a>, 2003. Risebrobakken, B., Morros, M., Ivanova, E. V., Chistyakova, N., and Rosenberg, R.: Climate and oceanographic variability in the SW Barents Sea during the Holocene, Holocene, 20, 609–621, 2010. Risebrobakken, B., Dokken, T., Smedsrud, L. H., Andersson, C., Jansen, E., Moros, M., and Ivanova, E. V.: Early Holocene temperature variability in the Nordic Seas: The role of oceanic heat advection versus changes in orbital forcing, Paleoceanography, 26, PA4206, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011PA002117">https://doi.org/10.1029/2011PA002117</a>, 2011. Rousse, S., Kissel, C., Laj, C., Eiriksson, J., and Knudsen, K. L.: Holocene centennial to millenial-scale climatic variability: Evidence from high resolution magnetic analyses of the last 10 cal. kyr of North Iceland (core MD99-2275), Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 242, 390–405, 2006. Rudels, B., Anderson, L. G., and Jones, E. P.: Formation and evolution of the surface mixed layer and the halocline of the Arctic Ocean, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 8807–8821, 1996. Rudels, B., Björk, G., Nilsson, J., Winsor, P., Lake, I., and Nohr, C.: The interaction between waters from the Arctic Ocean and the Nordic Seas north of Fram Strait and along the East Greenland Current: Results from the Arctic Ocean-O2 Oden expedition, J. Marine Syst., 55, 1–30, 2005. Rüther, D. C., Bjarnadóttir, L. J., Junttila, J., Husum, K., Rasmussen, T. L., Lucchi, R. G., and Andreassen, K.: Pattern and timing of the northwestern Barents Sea Ice Sheet deglaciation and indications of episodic Holocene deposition, Boreas, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.2011.00244.x">https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.2011.00244.x</a>, ISSN 0300-9483, 2012. Sætre, R.: Short term variability and small-scale features, in: The Norwegian coastal current, edited by: Sætre, R, Tapir academic press, Trondheim, 89-99, 2007. Saito, T., Thompson, P. R., and Breger, D.: Systematic index of recent and pleistocene planktonic foraminifera, University of Tokyo press, Tokyo, 1981. Sakshaug, E.: Biomass and productivity distributions and their variability in the Barents Sea, ICES J. Marine Sci., 54, 341–350, 1997. Sakshaug, E., Bjørge, A., Gulliksen, B., Loeng, H., and Mehlum, F.: Økosystem Barentshavet, Norges Allmenvitenskapelige Forskningsråd, Norges Fiskeriforskningsråd, Miljøverndepartementet, 304, 1992. Sarnthein, M., Jansen, E., Weinelt, M., Arnold, M., Duplessy, J., Erlenkeuser, H., Flatøy, A., Johannessen, G., Johannessen, T., Jung, S., Koç, N., Labeyrie, L., Maslin, M., Pflaumann, U., and Schulz, H.: Variations in Atlantic surface ocean paleoceanography, 50–80° N: A time-slice record of the last 30,000 years, Paleoceanography, 10, 1063–1094, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/95PA01453">https://doi.org/10.1029/95PA01453</a>, 1995. Sarnthein, M., Van Kreveld, S., Erlenkeuser, H., Grootes, P. M., Kucera, M., Pflaumann, U., and Schulz, M.: Centennial-to-millennial-scale periodicities of Holocene climate and sediment injections off the western Barents shelf, 75° N, Boreas, 32, 447–461, 2003. Schiermeier, Q.: Record shrinkage confounds models and portends atmospheric and ecological change, Nature, 489, 185–186, 2012. Scott, D. B., Schell, T., Rochon, A., and Blasco, S.: Modern benthic foraminifera in the surface sediments of the Beaufort shelf, slope and Mackenzie Trough, Beaufort Sea, Canada: Taxonomy and summary of surficial distributions, J. Foramin. Res., 38, 228–250, 2008. Semenov, V. A., Park, W., and Latif, M.: Barents Sea inflow shutdown: A new mechanism for rapid climate changes, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L14709, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038911">https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038911</a>, 2009. Slubowska, M. A., Koç, N., Rasmussen, T. L., and Klitgaard-Kristensen, D.: Changes in the flow of Atlantic water into the Arctic Ocean since the last deglaciation: Evidence from the northern Svalbard continental margin, 80N, Paleoceonography, 20, PA4014, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005PA001141">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005PA001141</a>, 2005. Slubowska-Woldengen, M., Rasmussen, T. L., Koç, N., Klitgaard-Kristensen, D., Nilsen, F., and Solheim, A.: Advection of Atlantic Water to the western and northern Svalbard shelf since 17 500 cal yr BP, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 26, 463–478, 2007. Smith, S. L., Smith, W. O., Codispoti, L. A., and Wilson, D. L.: Biological observations in the marginal ice zone of the East Greenland Sea, J. Marine Res., 43, 693–717, 1985. Smith, W. O. and Sakshaug, E.: Polar phytoplankton, in: Polar oceanography, edited by: Smith, W. O., Part B: Chemistry, Biology and Geology, Academic Press, New York, 447–525, 1990. Solignac, S., Giraudeau, J., and De Vernal, A.: Holocene sea surface conditions in the western North Atlantic: Spatial and temporal heterogeneities, Paleoceanography, 21, PA2004, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005PA001175">https://doi.org/10.1029/2005PA001175</a>, 2006. Spielhagen, R. F., Werner, K., Aagaard Sørensen, S., Zamelczyk, K., Kandiano, E., Budeus, G., Husum, K., Marchitto, T. M., and Hald, M.: Enhanced modern heat transfer to the Arctic by warm Atlantic water, Science, 331, 450, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1197397">https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1197397</a>, 2011. Stein, R. and Fahl, K.: Biomarker proxy shows potential for studying the entire Quaternary Arctic sea ice history, Org. Geochem., 55, 98–102, 2013. Steinsund, P. I. and Hald, M.: Recent carbonate dissolution in the Barents Sea: Paleoceanographic applications, Mar. Geol., 117, 303–316, 1994. Stroeve, J. C., Kattsov, V., Barrett, A., Serreze, M., Pavlova, T., Holland, M., and Meier, W. N.: Trends in Arctic sea ice extent from CMIP5, CMIP3 and observations, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L16502, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052676">https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GL052676</a>, 2012. Stuiver, M. and Reimer, P. J.: Extended 14C data base and revised CALIB 3.0 14C age calibration program, Radiocarbon, 35, 215–230, 1993 Swift, J. H.: The Arctic waters, in: The Nordic Seas, edited by: Hurdle, B. G., Springer New York, 129–153, 1986. Telford, R. J. and Birks, H. J. B.: The secret assumption of transfer functions: Problems with spatial autocorrelation in evaluating model performance, Quaternary Sci. Rev., 24, 2173–2179, 2005. Ter Braak, C. J. F. and Juggins, S.: Weighted averaging partial least squares regression (WA-PLS): An improved method for reconstructing environmental variables from species assemblages, Hydrobiologia, 269/270, 485–502, 1993. Thunell, R. C. and Honjo, S.: Calcite dissolution and the modification of planktonic foraminiferal assemblages, Mar. Micropaleontol., 6, 169–182, 1981. Vare, L. L., Massé, G., and Belt, S.: A biomarker-based reconstruction of sea ice conditions for the Barents Sea in recent centuries, Holocene, 20, 637–643, 2010. Vinje, T. E.: Sea ice conditions in the European sector of the marginal seas of the Arctic, 1966–75, Aarb. Nor. Polarinst., 1975, 163–174, 1977. Volkmann, R.: Planktic foraminifers in the outer Laptev Sea and the Fram Strait: Modern distribution and ecology, J. Foramin. Res., 30, 157–176, 2000. Voronina, E., Polyak, L., de Vernal, A., and Peyron, O.: Holocene variations of sea-surface conditions in the southeastern Barents Sea, reconstructed from dinoflagellate cyst assemblages, J. Quaternary Sci., 16, 717–726, 2001. Werner, K., Spielhagen, R. F., Bauch, D., Hass, H. C., and Kandiano, E.: Atlantic Water advection versus sea-ice advances in the eastern Fram Strait during the last 9 ka: Multiproxy evidence for a two-phase Holocene, Paleoceanography, 28, 283–295, <a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/palo.20028">https://doi.org/10.1002/palo.20028</a>, 2013. Zamelczyk, K., Rasmussen, T. L., Husum, K., Haflidason, H., de Vernal, A., Krogh Ravna, E., Hald, M., and Hillaire-Marcel, C.: Paleoceanographic changes and calcium carbonate dissolution in the central Fram Strait during the last 20 ka yr, Quaternary Res., 78, 405–416, 2012.